Neural differentiation from embryonic stem cells in vitro: An overview of the signaling pathways

Figure 1 A simplified scheme outlining the signaling pathways described in the text. The inducers that induce embryonic stem cells to differentiate into neurons reported thus far including RA, Wnt/β-catenin, TGF/BMP, Notch, FGF, cytokine, Hedgehog, JNK/MAPK and others. The inducers in the middle part of figure mediate signaling molecules that bring about the differentiation into neurons. → means stimulation. Some miscellaneous molecules/factors mentioned at the end of this text are not included in this figure. RA: Retinoic acid; TGF: Transforming growth factor; BMP: Bone morphogenetic protein; CREB: cAMP response element-binding protein; Dkk-1: Dickkopf-related protein 1; Erk: Extracellular signal-regulated kinase; FGF: Fibroblast growth factor; Hh: Hedgehog; JAK: Janus kinase; JNK: C-Jun N-terminal kinase; MAPK: Mitogen-activated protein kinase.