Roles of genetic and environmental factors in psychiatric comorbidities among children with neurodevelopmental delays

Table 1 Demographic and clinical characteristics of the study population, n (%)

Characteristic	Neurodevelopmental delay group (n = 80)	Control group (n = 40)	P value
Age (years), mean ± SD	5.7 ± 2.2	5.8 ± 2.1	0.814
Sex			0.783
Male	50 (62.5)	24 (60.0)
Female	30 (37.5)	16 (40.0)
Race/ethnicity			0.896
White	42 (52.5)	22 (55.0)
Black	15 (18.8)	7 (17.5)
Hispanic	14 (17.5)	6 (15.0)
Asian	6 (7.5)	4 (10.0)
Other	3 (3.8)	1 (2.5)
Parental education			0.682
High school or less	18 (22.5)	7 (17.5)
Some college	28 (35.0)	13 (32.5)
College graduate	24 (30.0)	14 (35.0)
Postgraduate	10 (12.5)	6 (15.0)
Developmental domains, mean ± SD
Cognitive (standard score)	76.3 ± 14.6	104.8 ± 12.4	< 0.001
Language (standard score)	72.7 ± 16.2	102.3 ± 10.9	< 0.001
Motor (standard score)	81.5 ± 15.8	103.4 ± 11.6	< 0.001
Social (standard score)	74.9 ± 17.3	101.5 ± 11.7	< 0.001
Adaptive (standard score)	75.2 ± 13.9	103.7 ± 12.1	< 0.001

Table 2 Association between genetic variants and psychiatric comorbidities in children with neurodevelopmental delays

Genetic pathway	Genes	Associated psychiatric comorbidity	OR (95%CI)	P value
Glutamatergic signaling	GRIN2A, GRIN2B, SHANK3	Anxiety disorders	3.8 (1.7-8.5)	0.001
Dopaminergic system	DRD4, DAT1, COMT	ADHD	4.2 (1.9-9.3)	< 0.001
Serotonergic system	SLC6A4, TPH2, HTR1A	Mood disorders	3.1 (1.4-6.9)	0.006
Synaptic function	NRXN1, NLGN3, NLGN4	Behavioral disorders	3.5 (1.5-8.1)	0.003
Synaptic function	NRXN1, NLGN3, NLGN4	Anxiety disorders	2.9 (1.3-6.4)	0.008
Chromatin remodeling	CHD8, ARID1B	Behavioral disorders	2.7 (1.2-6.1)	0.018
Calcium signaling	CACNA1C, CACNA1H	Mood disorders	3.3 (1.3-8.2)	0.012

CI: Confidence interval; OR: Odds ratio; ADHD: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.