Copyright: ©Author(s) 2026. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license. No commercial re-use. See permissions. Published by Baishideng Publishing Group Inc.
World J Clin Oncol. Mar 24, 2026; 17(3): 116093
Published online Mar 24, 2026. doi: 10.5306/wjco.v17.i3.116093
Published online Mar 24, 2026. doi: 10.5306/wjco.v17.i3.116093
Immunotherapy in liver metastases: Challenges, emerging evidence, and future directions
Hoang Tran Pham, Department of Internal Medicine, Trinity Health Ann Arbor Hospital, Ann Arbor, MI 48197, United States
Zhong-Yi Dong, Division of Experimental Medicine, McGill University, Montréal H4A 3J1, Quebec, Canada
Zhong-Yi Dong, Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, Montréal H3T 1E1, Quebec, Canada
Margarita De Alba, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60612, United States
Chasen Cottle, Joseph B Parker, Demarcus Ingram, Libardo Rueda Prada, Muhammad Ali, Department of Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, United States
Ming-Yi Zhang, Department of General Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, United States
Joseph B Parker, Vivienne Yang, Comprehensive Cancer Center, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, United States
Renee Morecroft-Phillipps, Department of Internal Medicine, HCA Florida Orange Park Hospital, Orange Park, FL 32065, United States
Keyur Chaludiya, Department of Radiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, United States
Ayesha N Ahmad, Boonshoft School of Medicine, Wright State University, Fairborn, OH 45324, United States
Zhen Zeng, Department of Thoracic Surgery, West China Hospital, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan Province, China
Michael M Mohseni, Department of Emergency Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, United States
Zi-Zhen Zhang, Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200127, China
Vivienne Yang, Department of Radiation Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, United States
Vivienne Yang, Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, United States
Co-first authors: Hoang Tran Pham and Zhong-Yi Dong.
Co-corresponding authors: Muhammad Ali and Vivienne Yang.
Author contributions: Pham HT and Dong ZY contribute equally to this study as co-first authors; Ali M and Yang V contribute equally to this study as co-corresponding authors Pham HT, Dong ZY, and Yang V conceived and designed the review topic; Pham HT and Dong ZY performed the literature search, data collection, and critical synthesis of the evidence, and drafted the initial manuscript; De Alba M, Zhang MY, and Morecroft-Phillipps R contributed to the analysis of immunotherapy mechanisms and tumor microenvironment features associated with liver metastases; Cottle C, Parker JB, and Ingram D provided clinical insights and contributed to sections related to translational relevance and clinical challenges; Ahmad AN, Zeng Z, and Zhang ZZ contributed to the interpretation of emerging clinical evidence and future therapeutic strategies; Chaludiya K and Mohseni MM assisted with figure conceptualization and refinement of key thematic frameworks; Rueda Prada L and Ali M contributed to manuscript revision and critical intellectual content; Yang V supervised the project, provided overall guidance, and critically revised the manuscript; all authors reviewed, edited, and approved the final version of the manuscript and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work.
Conflict-of-interest statement: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Corresponding author: Vivienne Yang, MBBS, MD, PhD, Comprehensive Cancer Center, Mayo Clinic, 4500 San Pablo Road South, Jacksonville, FL 32224, United States. vivienne.yang@proton.me
Received: November 2, 2025
Revised: January 2, 2026
Accepted: February 9, 2026
Published online: March 24, 2026
Processing time: 141 Days and 16.9 Hours
Revised: January 2, 2026
Accepted: February 9, 2026
Published online: March 24, 2026
Processing time: 141 Days and 16.9 Hours
Core Tip
Core Tip: This review highlights how the liver’s unique vascular and immune environment fosters metastasis. We summarize key cellular interactions, the concept of the hepatic pre-metastatic niche, and emerging therapeutic strategies that may improve outcomes for patients with liver metastases.