Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells: Source-dependent heterogeneity, translational challenges, and emerging precision strategies

Figure 1 Source-dependent heterogeneity of adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells and its translational implications. A: Multiple determinants contribute to adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cell (ADSC) source dependency, including donor-related variables such as age, metabolic status, and sex, as well as adipose tissue depot, isolation method, and culture conditions; B: These source-related factors shape the biological and functional heterogeneity of ADSCs, which is reflected in differences in proliferation, differentiation potential, immunophenotype, immunomodulation, secretome composition, extracellular vesicle output, and transcriptomic/epigenetic features; C: This heterogeneity has important translational implications for donor selection, potency assessment, cell bank standardization, source-stratified therapy, secretome-based therapy, and precision translation. ADSCs: Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells; 3D: Three-dimensional.