Current perspectives on regenerative potential of mesenchymal stem cells in alleviating cardiac injuries: Molecular pathways and therapeutic enhancement

Figure 1 Multiplicity of mesenchymal stem cells’ cardio-protective signaling mechanisms. Created in BioRender (Supplementary material). MSC: Mesenchymal stem cell; IL: Interleukin; TGF: Transforming growth factor; IFN: Interferon; HGF: Hepatocyte growth factor; PGE2: Prostaglandin E2; VEGF: Vascular endothelial growth factor; PI3K: Phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase; AKT: Protein kinase B; MMP: Matrix metalloprotease; SDF: Stromal-derived factor; IGF: Insulin-like growth factor.

Figure 2 Steps of mesenchymal stem cell homing to injured tissues and their triggering potentials. Created in BioRender (Supplementary material). ERK1: Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1; FAK: Focal adhesion kinase; AKT: Protein kinase B; PI3K: Phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase; Jak: Janus kinases; Stat: Signal transducer and activator of transcription; MAPK: Mitogen-activated protein kinases; GSK: Glycogen synthase kinase; CXCR: C-X-C chemokine receptor; SDF: Stromal-derived factor; VLA-4: Very late activating antigen-4; VCAM-1: Vascular cellular adhesion molecule-1; LFA-1: Lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1; ICAM-1: Intercellular adhesion molecule 1; MMPs: Matrix metalloproteases; ECM: Extracellular matrix; bGFG: Basic fibroblast growth factor; RANTES: Regulated upon activation normal T cell expressed and presumably secreted; MCP: Monocyte chemoattractant protein; PDGF: Platelet-derived growth factor.

Figure 3 Summary of strategies needed to enhance mesenchymal stem cell survival and homing capacity to improve cardiac function. Created in BioRender (Supplementary material). MSC: Mesenchymal stem cell.

Figure 4 Cardioprotective effects of exosomal-derived mesenchymal stem cells. Created in BioRender (Supplementary material). MSC: Mesenchymal stem cell.