Innovative prospects in 3D printed bio-scaffolds for osteochondral tissue engineering: A systematic review

Figure 1 PRISMA extension for scoping reviews flowchart for selection of studies.

Figure 2 Schematic overview of strategies employed to enhance osteochondral scaffold functionality, including material composition (hydrogels, composites), printing technologies (inkjet, laser-assisted, extrusion-based), and biological cues (growth factors, cytokines). ECM: Extracellular matrix.

Figure 3 Schematic overview of emerging innovations in osteochondral tissue engineering. This figure illustrates advanced fabrication strategies such as graded scaffolds for layer-specific regeneration, multi-material 3D bioprinting for replicating the complex cartilage-bone interface, and soundwave-based patterning technology for high cell viability and spatial accuracy.