Neuro-tumor interactions: Multi-dimensional mechanisms of neurotransmitter regulation in tumor immune evasion and metabolic reprogramming

Table 1 Propranolol-based cancer trials

Cancer	Study design	Drug	Main results	Sample size	Year
BC	Phase II RCT	Propranolol + etodolac	Reduced Ki-67, inflammatory cytokines, and pro-metastatic gene expression[62]	38	2018
MM	Phase I clinical trial	Propranolol + pembrolizumab	Safe with 78% objective response rate and biomarker modulation[63]	9	2021
BC	Phase II feasibility study	Propranolol + neoadjuvant chemotherapy	Feasible with 96% adherence, no major safety issues[64]	10	2021
CRC	Translational and preclinical study	Propranolol	Activated CD8+ T cells, suppressed AKT/MAPK signaling[65]	Unknow	2020
OC	Prospective pilot clinical trial	Propranolol + chemotherapy	Feasible with cytokine modulation and improved QOL[66]	26	2019
CRC	RCT	Propranolol + etodolac	Improved EMT and immune markers, and reduced recurrence trend[67]	34	2020
BC	Phase II RCT	Propranolol + etodolac	Reduced EMT and inflammation, and improved NK cell markers[68]	38	2017

BC: Breast cancer; MM: Melanoma; CRC: Colorectal cancer; OC: Ovarian cancer; RCT: Randomized controlled trial; QOL: Quality of life; EMT: Epithelial-mesenchymal transition; NK cell: Natural killer cell; AKT: Protein kinase B; MAPK: Mitogen-activated protein kinase.