Tariq M, Sattar A, Khalid A, Azam M, Mehmood M, Hafeez R, Rafaqat S. Role of tumor markers and cytokines in the pathogenesis of lung cancer. World J Clin Oncol 2026; 17(6): 121169 [DOI: 10.5306/wjco.121169]
Corresponding Author of This Article
Saira Rafaqat, PhD, Department of Zoology, Lahore College for Women University, Near Wapda Flats, Jail Road, Jubilee Town, Lahore 54000, Punjab, Pakistan. saera.rafaqat@gmail.com
Research Domain of This Article
Oncology
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review-article
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Tariq M, Sattar A, Khalid A, Azam M, Mehmood M, Hafeez R, Rafaqat S. Role of tumor markers and cytokines in the pathogenesis of lung cancer. World J Clin Oncol 2026; 17(6): 121169 [DOI: 10.5306/wjco.121169]
Maria Tariq, Department of Zoology, University of Education, Lahore 54000, Punjab, Pakistan
Aqsa Sattar, Amber Khalid, Mehak Mehmood, Ramsha Hafeez, Saira Rafaqat, Department of Zoology, Lahore College for Women University, Lahore 54000, Punjab, Pakistan
Minahil Azam, Department of Zoology, University of Gujrat, Gujrat 54000, Punjab, Pakistan
Author contributions: Tariq M, Sattar A, and Rafaqat S carried out the study design and data collection; Khalid A, Azam M, and Rafaqat S wrote the manuscript; Mehmood M, Hafeez R, and Rafaqat S provided the manuscript editing services; and all authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Conflict-of-interest statement: All the authors have no conflict of interest related to the manuscript.
Corresponding author: Saira Rafaqat, PhD, Department of Zoology, Lahore College for Women University, Near Wapda Flats, Jail Road, Jubilee Town, Lahore 54000, Punjab, Pakistan. saera.rafaqat@gmail.com
Received: March 18, 2026 Revised: April 8, 2026 Accepted: May 6, 2026 Published online: June 24, 2026 Processing time: 96 Days and 23.1 Hours
Abstract
Lung cancer is characterized by the uncontrolled proliferation of abnormal cells in one or both lungs, typically originating from the epithelial lining of the airways. Cytokines are small, biologically active proteins that function as signaling molecules, mediating communication between cells and regulating immune and inflammatory responses. In the context of lung cancer, cytokines play a crucial role in modulating the tumor microenvironment and influencing immune responses against malignant cells. Tumor markers and inflammatory cytokines are key contributors to the pathogenesis of lung cancer, facilitating tumor initiation, angiogenesis, and disease progression within an inflammatory microenvironment. Numerous tumor markers and cytokines have been identified and investigated in relation to lung cancer development and progression. However, we focused on carcinoembryonic antigen, squamous cell carcinoma, cytokeratin 19 fragment, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, interferon-γ, interleukin (IL)-1, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and neuron-specific enolase in the pathogenesis of lung cancer. Furthermore, they promote immune evasion, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and metastatic dissemination, thereby serving as important diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic targets. These biologically active molecules can modulate the immune response, enhancing the body’s ability to inhibit tumor growth and promote the destruction of lung cancer cells. By stimulating immune effector mechanisms and regulating signaling pathways involved in tumor progression, cytokine-based therapies contribute to improved anti-tumor immunity and represent promising strategies in the management of lung cancer.
Core Tip: Numerous tumor markers and cytokines have been identified and investigated in relation to lung cancer development and progression. However, we focused on carcinoembryonic antigen, squamous cell carcinoma, cytokeratin 19 fragment, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, interferon-γ, interleukin (IL)-1, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and neuron-specific enolase in the pathogenesis of lung cancer.
