Extracellular vesicles in allergic rhinitis: Immune regulatory mechanisms and therapeutic applications

Figure 1 Timeline of this research field. This figure illustrates the key developments of extracellular vesicles and mesenchymal stem cells in allergic rhinitis and related research. This timeline clearly presents the evolution of exosome research from basic discovery to precision diagnosis and translational applications of allergic rhinitis. sEVs: Small extracellular vesicles; AR: Allergic rhinitis; MSC: Mesenchymal stem cell; miRNA: MicroRNA.

Figure 2 The role of extracellular vesicles in allergic rhinitis. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play a crucial role in allergic rhinitis (AR): The microRNAs (miRNAs) they carry (such as miR-30-5p, miR-199b-3p, miR-874, miR-149-5p, and miR-150-5p) promote Th2/type 2 innate lymphoid cell immune responses and B cell activation by regulating pathways such as Wnt/AXIN2, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, and phosphatidyl-inositol-3-kinase/protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin. Simultaneously, the microbiome in nasal EVs of AR patients is imbalanced, characterized by reduced Zoogloea and Streptococcus and enriched Acetobacter and Mycoplasma, reflecting local microecological dysbiosis. These characteristics collectively form the basis for EVs as multidimensional biomarkers of AR. EVs: Extracellular vesicles; miRNA: MicroRNA.

Figure 3 A thermosensitive injectable chitosan-based hydrogel used in allergic rhinitis. A thermosensitive injectable chitosan-based hydrogel was intranasally delivered into allergic rhinitis mice models and proved to be effective in alleviating allergic rhinitis symptoms, reducing submucosal eosinophils infiltration and reversing Th1/Th2 imbalance in allergic rhinitis pathogenesis. Citation: Zhao C, Wei X, Kong W, Zhao Y, Yang J, Cheng J, Wang Z. Mesenchymal stem cell derived extracellular vesicles loaded thermosensitive chitosan-based hydrogel alleviates allergic rhinitis in mouse model. Mater Des 2023; 233: 112271. Copyright© The Authors 2023. Published by Elsevier Ltd. The authors have obtained the permission for figure using from the Elsevier Ltd (Supplementary material). BMSC: Bone marrow derived-mesenchymal stem cell; EVs: Extracellular vesicles; OVA: Ovalbumin.