Deep learning techniques for using computed tomography imaging for hepatocellular carcinoma diagnosis, treatment and prognosis

Figure 1 Risk factors for hepatocellular carcinoma. AFC: Advanced fibrosis cirrhosis; GPD: Genetic predisposition; HBV: Hepatitis B virus; HCV: Hepatitis C virus; MASLD: Metabolic associated steatotic liver disease. The image materials are sourced from Biorender (https://biorender.com) and Figdraw (https://www.figdraw.com) (Supplementary material).

Figure 2 Diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for hepatocellular carcinoma. CT: Computed tomography; MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging; cf-DNAs: Cell free DNAs; CTCs: Circulating tumor cells; ctDNA: Circulating tumor DNAs; circRNAs: Circular RNAs; mRNA: Messenger RNA; lncRNAs: Long non-coding RNAs; miRNAs: MicroRNAs; EVs: Extracellular vesicles; IHC: Immunohistochemistry; HE: Hematoxylin and eosin staining; CTLA-4: Cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen-4; PD-1: Programmed death-1; PD-L1: Programmed death ligand 1; TCR: T cell antigen receptor; MHC I: Major histocompatibility complex class I; CD80: Cluster of differentiation 80. The image materials are sourced from Biorender (https://biorender.com) and The Human Protein Atlas (https://www.proteinatlas.org) (Supplementary material).

Figure 3 Deep learning networks architecture diagram. A: The architecture of convolutional neural network[74]; B: The architecture of U-shaped network[79]; C: The architecture of residual network[84]; D: The architecture of densely connected convolutional network[84]; E: The architecture of visual geometry group network[93]; F: The architecture of Transformer network[96]; G: The architecture of Efficient network[101]. ReLU: Rectified linear unit; conv: Convolution; MBconv: Mobile inverted bottleneck convolution; BN: Batch nomalization; SE: Squeeze and Excitation. Citation for Figure 3A: Zhang J, Yang Y, Feng X, Xu H, Chen J, He Y. Identification of Bacterial Blight Resistant Rice Seeds Using Terahertz Imaging and Hyperspectral Imaging Combined With Convolutional Neural Network. Front Plant Sci 2020; 11: 821. Copyright ©The Author(s) 2020. Published by Frontiers Media SA; Citation for Figure 3B: Pravitasari A, Asnawi M, Nugraha F, Darmawan G, Hendrawati T. Enhancing 3D Lung Infection Segmentation with 2D U-Shaped Deep Learning Variants. Appl Sci 2023; 13: 11640. Copyright ©The Author(s) 2023. Published by Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute; Citation for Figure 3C and D: Wang X, Mi Y, Zhang X. 3D human pose data augmentation using Generative Adversarial Networks for robotic-assisted movement quality assessment. Front Neurorobot 2024; 18: 1371385. Copyright ©The Author(s) 2024. Published by Frontiers Media SA; Citation for Figure 3E: Zhang X, Feng Q, Zhu D, Liang X, Zhang J. Compressing recognition network of cotton disease with spot-adaptive knowledge distillation. Front Plant Sci 2024; 15: 1433543. Copyright ©The Author(s) 2024. Published by Frontiers Media SA; Citation for Figure 3F: Choi SR, Lee M. Transformer Architecture and Attention Mechanisms in Genome Data Analysis: A Comprehensive Review. Biology (Basel) 2023; 12: 1033. Copyright ©The Author(s) 2023. Published by Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute; Citation for Figure 3G: Nigam S, Jain R, Singh VK, Singh AK, Krishna H. Automated severity level estimation of wheat rust using an EfficientNet-CBAM hybrid model. Front Plant Sci 2025; 16: 1540642. Copyright ©The Author(s) 2025. Published by Frontiers Media SA. The authors have obtained the permission for figure using (Supplementary material).