Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease and metabolic dysfunction-associated alcohol-related liver disease in human immunodeficiency virus

Figure 1 Chronic inflammation and immune activation in people living with human immunodeficiency virus increase risk of metabolic syndrome. The images were created using BioRender (Supplementary material). PLWH: People living with human immunodeficiency virus; IL: Interleukin; TNF: Tumor necrosis factor.

Figure 2 Elevated tumor necrosis factor-α levels in people living with human immunodeficiency virus promotes phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 and decreases translocation of glucose transporter type 4, thereby worsening insulin resistance and promoting metabolic syndrome. The images were created using BioRender (Supplementary material). TNF: Tumor necrosis factor; IRS-1: Insulin receptor substrate-1; GLUT4: Glucose transporter type 4; P: Phosphorylation.

Figure 3 Human immunodeficiency virus-related mechanisms and their roles in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease/metabolic dysfunction-associated alcohol-related liver disease. The images were created using BioRender (Supplementary material). HIV: Human immunodeficiency virus; NRTI: Nucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitor; INSTI: Integrase strand transfer inhibitor; LPS: Lipopolysaccharide; PAMP: Pathogen-associated molecular pattern; MASLD: Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease; MetALD: Metabolic dysfunction-associated alcohol-related liver disease; TLR4: Toll-like receptor 4; IL: Interleukin; PLHW: People living with human immunodeficiency virus; ROS: Reactive oxygen species; CYP2E1: Cytochrome P450 2E1.