Development and validation of a prediction model for non-suicidal self-injury in adolescents based on functional near-infrared spectroscopy and neuropsychological assessment

Table 1 Comparison of basic characteristics between two groups, n (%)/mean ± SD

Item	NSSI group (n = 156)	Control group (n = 156)	t/χ2	P value
Gender			0.103	0.748
Male	42 (26.9)	45 (28.8)
Female	114 (73.1)	111 (71.2)
Age (years)	15.3 ± 1.6	15.1 ± 1.7	1.052	0.294
Years of education (years)	8.6 ± 1.5	8.8 ± 1.4	-1.186	0.237
Only child	82 (52.6)	78 (50.0)	0.205	0.651
Divorced parents	38 (24.4)	25 (16.0)	3.425	0.064
Comorbid depression	98 (62.8)	32 (20.5)	56.82	< 0.001
Comorbid anxiety	72 (46.2)	28 (17.9)	28.56	< 0.001
Family history of mental illness	35 (22.4)	18 (11.5)	6.528	0.011

NSSI: Non-suicidal self-injury.

Table 2 Comparison of functional near-infrared spectroscopy indicators between two groups, mean ± SD

Indicator	NSSI group (n = 156)	Control group (n = 156)	t value	P value
Left DLPFC
HbO2 peak (μM)	0.042 ± 0.018	0.068 ± 0.022	-10.82	< 0.001
Activation integral (μM/s)	1.85 ± 0.72	3.12 ± 0.86	-13.68	< 0.001
Activation latency (s)	18.6 ± 5.2	12.5 ± 4.1	11.25	< 0.001
Right DLPFC
HbO2 peak (μM)	0.038 ± 0.016	0.062 ± 0.020	-11.52	< 0.001
Activation integral (μM/s)	1.68 ± 0.65	2.85 ± 0.78	-13.92	< 0.001
Activation latency (s)	19.2 ± 5.5	13.2 ± 4.3	10.56	< 0.001
Left VLPFC
HbO2 peak (μM)	0.035 ± 0.015	0.052 ± 0.018	-8.86	< 0.001
Activation integral (μM/s)	1.52 ± 0.58	2.35 ± 0.68	-11.25	< 0.001
Right VLPFC
HbO2 peak (μM)	0.032 ± 0.014	0.048 ± 0.017	-8.72	< 0.001
Activation integral (μM/s)	1.42 ± 0.55	2.18 ± 0.62	-11.08	< 0.001

DLPFC: Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; VLPFC: Ventrolateral prefrontal cortex; NSSI: Non-suicidal self-injury; HbO₂: Cortical oxyhemoglobin.

Table 3 Comparison of neuropsychological assessment results between two groups, mean ± SD

Scale and dimension	NSSI group (n = 156)	Control group (n = 156)	t value	P value
DERS total score	112.5 ± 18.6	72.8 ± 15.2	20.25	< 0.001
Difficulty in emotional awareness	16.8 ± 4.2	12.5 ± 3.5	9.62	< 0.001
Lack of emotional clarity	14.2 ± 3.8	10.2 ± 3.2	9.86	< 0.001
Non-acceptance of emotional responses	18.5 ± 4.5	11.8 ± 3.6	14.25	< 0.001
Limited access to strategies	22.6 ± 5.2	14.5 ± 4.2	14.86	< 0.001
Impulse control difficulties	18.2 ± 4.8	11.2 ± 3.5	14.38	< 0.001
Difficulties engaging in goal-directed behaviors	17.5 ± 4.2	12.6 ± 3.8	10.52	< 0.001
CTQ total score	52.8 ± 14.5	35.6 ± 10.2	11.86	< 0.001
Emotional abuse	10.5 ± 3.8	7.2 ± 2.5	8.86	< 0.001
Physical abuse	7.8 ± 3.2	5.8 ± 1.8	6.62	< 0.001
Emotional neglect	15.6 ± 4.5	10.2 ± 3.2	11.86	< 0.001
Physical neglect	10.2 ± 3.5	7.5 ± 2.6	7.52	< 0.001
BIS-11 total score	75.2 ± 11.5	58.6 ± 9.8	13.52	< 0.001
Attentional impulsiveness	18.5 ± 4.2	14.2 ± 3.5	9.62	< 0.001
Motor impulsiveness	24.6 ± 5.5	18.2 ± 4.2	11.25	< 0.001
Non-planning impulsiveness	28.5 ± 5.8	22.5 ± 4.8	9.72	< 0.001
ASLEC total score	48.6 ± 15.2	28.5 ± 10.5	13.25	< 0.001
Interpersonal relationships	12.8 ± 4.5	7.2 ± 3.2	12.35	< 0.001
Academic pressure	11.5 ± 3.8	6.8 ± 2.5	12.42	< 0.001

NSSI: Non-suicidal self-injury; DERS: Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale; CTQ: Childhood Trauma Questionnaire; BIS-11: Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11; ASLEC: Adolescent Self-Rating Life Events Checklist.

Table 4 Univariate logistic regression analysis of non-suicidal self-injury influencing factors

Variable	B	SE	OR (95%CI)	Wald	P value
Divorced parents	0.525	0.286	1.69 (0.97-2.96)	3.37	0.066
Comorbid depression	1.856	0.252	6.40 (3.90-10.49)	54.25	< 0.001
Comorbid anxiety	1.352	0.248	3.87 (2.38-6.29)	29.72	< 0.001
Family history of mental illness	0.825	0.325	2.28 (1.21-4.32)	6.45	0.011
Left DLPFC activation integral value	-1.125	0.162	0.32 (0.24-0.44)	48.25	< 0.001
Right DLPFC activation integral value	-1.052	0.158	0.35 (0.26-0.47)	44.36	< 0.001
DERS non-acceptance of emotional responses	0.185	0.025	1.20 (1.15-1.26)	54.76	< 0.001
DERS limited access to strategies	0.152	0.022	1.16 (1.12-1.21)	47.72	< 0.001
CTQ emotional neglect	0.142	0.022	1.15 (1.10-1.20)	41.68	< 0.001
CTQ emotional abuse	0.125	0.028	1.13 (1.07-1.20)	19.94	< 0.001
BIS-11 motor impulsiveness	0.162	0.025	1.18 (1.12-1.23)	42.02	< 0.001
BIS-11 attentional impulsiveness	0.135	0.028	1.14 (1.08-1.21)	23.25	< 0.001
ASLEC interpersonal relationships	0.152	0.028	1.16 (1.10-1.23)	29.47	< 0.001
ASLEC academic pressure	0.098	0.022	1.10 (1.06-1.15)	19.85	< 0.001

DLPFC: Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; DERS: Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale; CTQ: Childhood Trauma Questionnaire; BIS-11: Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11; ASLEC: Adolescent Self-Rating Life Events Checklist; OR: Odds ratio.

Table 5 Multivariate logistic regression analysis of non-suicidal self-injury influencing factors

Variable	B	SE	OR (95%CI)	Wald	P value
Left DLPFC activation integral value	-0.328	0.108	0.72 (0.58-0.89)	9.22	0.002
DERS non-acceptance of emotional responses	0.142	0.032	1.15 (1.08-1.23)	19.69	< 0.001
CTQ emotional neglect	0.112	0.035	1.12 (1.05-1.19)	10.24	0.001
BIS-11 motor impulsiveness	0.168	0.042	1.18 (1.09-1.28)	16.00	< 0.001
ASLEC interpersonal relationships	0.086	0.032	1.09 (1.03-1.16)	7.23	0.007

Model χ² = 186.52, P < 0.001; Hosmer-Lemeshow test χ² = 8.256, P = 0.409; Nagelkerke R² = 0.586. DLPFC: Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; DERS: Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale; CTQ: Childhood Trauma Questionnaire; BIS-11: Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11; ASLEC: Adolescent Self-Rating Life Events Checklist; OR: Odds ratio.