Forever chemicals and mental health: A systematic review of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances-related psychiatric outcomes and mechanistic insights

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Mar 19, 2026 (publication date) through Feb 27, 2026

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World Journal of Psychiatry

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2220-3206

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Baishideng Publishing Group Inc, 7041 Koll Center Parkway, Suite 160, Pleasanton, CA 94566, USA

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©Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2026. No commercial re-use. See Permissions. Published by Baishideng Publishing Group Inc.

World J Psychiatry. Mar 19, 2026; 16(3): 112022
Published online Mar 19, 2026. doi: 10.5498/wjp.v16.i3.112022

Table 1 Summary of studies on per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances exposure and psychiatric outcomes

Ref.	Research design	Sample size	Outcomes focus
Ahrens et al[21], 2024	Longitudinal cohort study	16440	ASD
Carrizosa et al[22], 2021	Longitudinal cohort study	1240	Neuropsychological development
Tang et al[23], 2024	Cross-sectional observational study	7301	Depression
Dalsager et al[24], 2021	Longitudinal cohort study	1138	ADHD
England-Mason et al[25], 2025	Retrospective machine learning analysis	406	Neurodevelopment
Hong et al[26], 2024	Cross-sectional study with paired subjects	59	Cognitive impairment
Hu et al[27], 2024	Longitudinal cohort study	50	Depression
Itoh et al[28], 2022	Longitudinal cohort study	770	ADHD
Itoh et al[29], 2025	Longitudinal cohort study	15131	Neuropsychological development
Kim et al[30], 2023	Longitudinal cohort study	221	Postpartum depression, Infant neurodevelopment
Kim et al[31], 2023	Longitudinal cohort study	521	ADHD
Lefèvre-Arbogast et al[32], 2024	Longitudinal cohort study	1288	Dementia
Oh et al[33], 2021	Longitudinal cohort study	173	ASD
Ogundare and Obeng-Gyasi[34], 2025	Cross-sectional observational study	181	Depression
Sun et al[35], 2024	Cross-sectional observational study	7700	Depression
Tillaut et al[36], 2023	Longitudinal cohort study	444	ADHD, depression, anxiety
Yao et al[37], 2022	Longitudinal cohort study	274	Neuropsychological development
Wu et al[38], 2024	Experimental in vitro study	3-6 biological replicates	Alzheimer’s disease
Zhang et al[39], 2025	Longitudinal cohort study	1779	Neurodevelopment

ASD: Autism spectrum disorder; ADHD: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Citation: Jiang YL, Samah NA, Xiao ZS. Forever chemicals and mental health: A systematic review of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances-related psychiatric outcomes and mechanistic insights. World J Psychiatry 2026; 16(3): 112022
URL: https://www.wjgnet.com/2220-3206/full/v16/i3/112022.htm
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v16.i3.112022