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Publication Name
World Journal of Diabetes
ISSN
1948-9358
Publisher of This Article
Baishideng Publishing Group Inc, 7041 Koll Center Parkway, Suite 160, Pleasanton, CA 94566, USA

Observational Study
Copyright: ©Author(s) 2026.
World J Diabetes. Mar 15, 2026; 17(3): 115465
Published online Mar 15, 2026. doi: 10.4239/wjd.v17.i3.115465
Table 1 Characteristics of the subjects, n (%)/mean ± SD
Variables
T1DM (n = 211)
Ketosis-onset diabetes (n = 673)
Non-ketotic T2DM (n = 893)
P value1
P value2
Male118 (55.9)503 (74.7)542 (60.7)< 0.001< 0.001
Age (years)39 ± 1948 ± 1554 ± 13< 0.001< 0.001
Hypertension29 (13.7)253 (37.6)400 (44.8)< 0.001< 0.001
CKD16 (7.6)113 (16.8)186 (20.8)< 0.0010.005
Smoking63 (29.9)268 (39.8)308 (34.5)0.0140.791
Alcohol27 (12.8)146 (21.7)174 (19.5)0.0170.314
LLD39 (18.5)186 (27.6)289 (32.4)< 0.0010.004
APA41 (19.4)190 (28.2)308 (34.5)< 0.0010.885
SBP (mmHg)119 ± 15128 ± 16128 ± 16< 0.001< 0.001
DBP (mmHg)76 ± 1082 ± 1181 ± 9< 0.001< 0.001
WHR0.87 ± 0.060.92 ± 0.060.92 ± 0.06< 0.001< 0.001
BMI (kg/m2)21.34 ± 3.8925.05 ± 3.5525.05 ± 3.42< 0.001< 0.001
FPG3 (mmol/L)8.19 (6.19-11.02)9.71 (7.62-12.42)7.98 (6.63-9.98)< 0.0010.001
2h PPG3 (mmol/L)14.89 (10.25-18.66)16.26 (12.50-20.07)13.92 (10.82-17.27)< 0.0010.014
HbA1C (%)11.48 ± 2.8611.43 ± 2.229.96 ± 2.49< 0.001< 0.001
FCP3 (ng/mL)0.62 (0.28-1.05)1.36 (0.80-2.06)2.09 (1.35-3.05)< 0.001< 0.001
2h C-P3 (ng/mL)1.04 (0.49-2.20)2.54 (1.54-3.96)4.84 (3.00-6.90)< 0.001< 0.001
TG3 (mmol/L)0.97 (0.70-1.44)1.48 (0.99-2.26)1.57 (1.13-2.19)< 0.001< 0.001
TC (mmol/L)4.57 ± 1.114.98 ± 1.314.87 ± 1.18< 0.001< 0.001
HDL-C (mmol/L)1.20 ± 0.381.06 ± 0.321.11 ± 0.30< 0.001< 0.001
LDL-C (mmol/L)2.90 ± 0.923.14 ± 0.983.16 ± 0.970.0030.003
ALT3 (U/L)21.00 (14.00-31.00)27.00 (17.75-42.00)25.00 (16.00-44.25)< 0.0010.003
γ-GT3 (U/L)16.50 (13.00-24.75)29.00 (20.00-46.50)32.00 (20.00-54.00)< 0.001< 0.001
SUA3 (μmol/L)255 (201-325)304 (245-375)313 (261-373)< 0.001< 0.001
UAE3 (mg/24 hours)7.39 (5.43-10.73)9.54 (6.55-19.18)11.12 (6.68-23.10)< 0.0010.004
eGFR3 (mL/minute/1.73 m2)131.71 (108.52-177.47)121.63 (100.53-148.83)113.92 (95.96-133.73)< 0.0010.002
CRP3 (mg/L)0.74 (0.25-1.72)1.39 (0.58-3.72)1.33 (0.65-3.20)< 0.001< 0.001
HOMA2-β20.60 (10.30-38.70)27.10 (18.00-39.50)52.40 (32.33-83.85)< 0.001< 0.001
HOMA2-IR0.56 (0.28-0.97)1.28 (0.70-2.08)1.80 (1.20-2.62)< 0.001< 0.001
1P value: The P values were not adjusted for age and gender for the trend.
2P value: The P values were adjusted for gender and age for the trend.
3The Kruskal-Wallis test was applied.
T1DM: Type 1 diabetes mellitus; T2DM: Type 2 diabetes mellitus; CKD: Chronic kidney disease; LLD: Lipid-lowering drugs; APA: Antihypertensive agents; SBP: Systolic blood pressure; DBP: Diastolic blood pressure; WHR: Waist-to-hip ratio; BMI: Body mass index; FPG: Fasting plasma glucose; 2h PPG: 2-hour postprandial plasma glucose; HbA1C: Glycated hemoglobin A1c; FCP: Fasting C-peptide; 2h C-P: 2-hour C-peptide; TG: Triglycerides; TC: Total cholesterol; HDL-C: High-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C: Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; ALT: Alanine aminotransferase; γ-GT: Gamma-glutamyl transferase; SUA: Serum uric acid; UAE: Urinary albumin excretion; eGFR: Estimated glomerular filtration rate; CRP: C-reactive protein; HOMA2-β: Homeostasis model assessment index for beta-cell function; HOMA2-IR: Homeostasis model assessment index for insulin resistance.
Full Size Table
Table 2 Risk factors of diabetic retinopathy in each diabetic group
Group
Variables
OR
95%CI
P value
Type 1 diabeteseGFR3.6381.057-12.5240.041
2h PCP3.5111.182-10.4290.024
Ketosis-onseteGFR1.6551.075-2.5470.022
DiabetesUAE2.1531.279-3.6250.004
Non-ketoticeGFR1.5171.115-2.0660.008
Type 2 diabetesUAE1.6531.192-2.2920.003
BMI0.8420.764-0.927< 0.001
Adjusted for age, sex, hypertension, the use of lipid-lowering drugs and antihypertensive agents, smoking, alcohol drinking, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, waist-to-hip ratio, body mass index, alanine aminotransferase, gamma-glutamyl transferase, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, apolipoprotein A, estimated glomerular filtration rate, serum uric acid, urinary albumin excretion, fasting plasma glucose, 2-hour postprandial plasma glucose, C-reactive protein, glycated hemoglobin A1c, fasting C-peptide, 2-hour postprandial C-peptide. OR: Odds ratio; CI: Confidence interval; eGFR: Estimated glomerular filtration rate; 2h PCP: 2-hour postprandial C-peptide; UAE: Urinary albumin excretion; BMI: Body mass index.
Full Size Table
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