Circulating microbiome and its clinical implications in diabetes mellitus: Mechanistic insights and therapeutic perspectives

Figure 1 Factors influencing bacterial translocation.

Figure 2 Factors with regulatory action on the mucosal intestinal barrier through paracellular permeability. Ca²⁺: Calcium ion.

Figure 3 A schematic representation of the concept of metaflammation.

Figure 4 Schematic representation of the link between diet, gut microbiota, trimethylamine-N-oxide and the clinical manifestations of type II diabetes mellitus. TMAO: Trimethylamine-N-oxide; TMA: Trimethylamine.

Figure 5 Schematic overview of vasculopathy in diabetes mellitus. Diabetic vasculopathy involves the cerebral, ophthalmic, cardiac, renal, and peripheral systems.

Figure 6 Classification of various biomarkers implicated in diabetes. mRNA: Messenger RNA.

Figure 7 Using gut microbiota modulation as a precision strategy against type II diabetes mellitus. FMT: Fecal microbiota transplantation; TLR: Toll-like receptor; TMAO: Trimethylamine-N-oxide.

Figure 8 Causes of the individual variability in drug response.

Figure 9 Integrating multi-omics to unravel host-microbiome interactions in type II diabetes mellitus.

Figure 10  Summary of various microbiome model types. Model types include in vitro models, in vivo models, organoid and organ-on-a-chip models and human microbiota-associated models.