Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes: Shaping the next era of Alzheimer’s disease treatment

Table 1 Therapeutic properties of mesenchymal stem cell exosomes in Alzheimer’s disease

Source	Cargoes	Model	Injection/culture	Machine	Character	Ref.
Wharton’s jelly MSCs	Exosomes	FAD human neural cell	Matrigel culture model	NEP	Aβ degradation	[7]
Bone marrow MSCs	MiR-29c-3p	Aβ1-42 injected rat	Lateral ventricle injection	Wnt/β-catenin	Aβ degradation	[13]
Bone marrow MSCs	GDF-15	Aβ42 incubated SH-SY5Y	Gibco	Akt/GSK-3β/β-catenin	Aβ degradation	[17]
Human umbilical cord MSCs	Exosomes	APP/PS1 mice	Caudal vein injection	Glial cell polarisation	Aβ degradation, immune regulation	[61]
Induced pluripotent stem cell derived MSCs	MiR-223-3p	STZ mice	Intracisternal injection	NLRP3/GSDMD	Immune regulation	[75]
Bone marrow MSCs	Exosomes	STZ mice	Lateral ventricle/caudal vein injection	BDNF	Neuroregeneration, immune regulation	[12]
Human bone marrow MSCs	Exosomes	3xTg mice	Intranasal route	Glial cell polarisation	Immune regulation	[70]
Wharton’s jelly MSCs	Exosomes	J20 (JAX-006293)	IV	Glial cell polarisation	Immune regulation	[7]
Adipose derived MSCs	MiR-22	APP/PS1 mice	Caudal vein injection	GSDMD	Immune regulation	[19]
MSCs	MiR-223	Aβ1-40 incubated SH-SY5Y	-	PTEN	Neuroreprotection	[18]
Bone marrow MSCs	Exosomes	Aβ1-42 injected mice	Lateral ventricle injection	-	Neuroregeneration	[14]
Bone marrow MSCs	MiR-21, miR-155, miR-17-5p, miR-126-3p	AlCl3 incubated rat	Intraperitoneal injection	PI3K/Akt/mTOR	Neuroregeneration	[20]
Bone marrow MSCs	MiR-146a	APP/PS1 mice, astrocyte	Intracerebroventricular injection/transwell	NF-κB	Neuroregeneration	[81]
Bone marrow MSCs	MiR-21	APP/PS1 mice	Caudal vein injection	STAT3 NF-κB	Neuroregeneration	[21]
Human amniotic fluid	Exosomes	Aβ incubated SH-SY5Y, LSP incubated BV-2	Transwells	Oxidative stress	Neuroreprotection	[82]
Bone marrow MSCs	Exosomes	Hippocampal neuronal exposed AβO	Transwells	Oxidative stress	Neuroreprotection Aβ degradation	[83]
Olfactory mucosa MSCs	Exosomes	Aβ1-42 injected mice	Caudal vein injection	LRP1	Neuroreprotection	[84]

MSC: Mesenchymal stem cell; FAD: Familial Alzheimer’s disease; NEP: Neprilysin; Aβ: Β-amyloid; GDF-15: Growth differentiation factor-15; Akt: Protein kinase B; GSK-3β: Glycogen synthase kinase-3β; APP: Β-amyloid precursor protein; STZ: Streptozotocin; NLRP3: Nod-like receptor protein 3; GSDMD: Gasdermin D; BDNF: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor; 3xTg: Triple-transgenic; IV: Intravenous injection; PTEN: Phosphatase and tensin homolog; PI3K: Phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase; mTOR: Mammalian target of rapamycin; STAT3: Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3; NF-κB: Nuclear factor-kappa B; AβO: Soluble oligomers of the amyloid-β peptide; LRP1: Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1.