Interplay and therapeutic implications of colorectal cancer stem cells, tumor microenvironment, and gut microbiota

Table 1 Microbial influences in colorectal cancer: Species, pathways, and therapeutic potential

Microbial species	Role in colorectal cancer	Associated molecular pathways	Expression in CRC patients (↑/↓)	Potential therapeutic target (yes/no)	Notes	Ref.
Bacteroides fragilis	Promotes tumor growth and inflammation	TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway	↑	Yes	Enterotoxigenic strains significant	[17]
Fusobacterium nucleatum	Increases cell proliferation and adhesion	FadA adhesion, E-cadherin activation	↑	Yes	Linked to tumor progression	[18]
Escherichia coli (pks+)	Induces genotoxicity and DNA damage	Colibactin production, DNA double-strand breaks	↑	No	pks+ strains carry colibactin genes	[19]
Faecalibacterium prausnitzii	Exhibits anti-inflammatory properties	Short-chain fatty acid production, IL-10 stimulation	↓	Yes	Protective role in gut health	[20]
Streptococcus gallolyticus	Associated with tumor development	Unknown	↑	No	Correlation with CRC, mechanisms unclear	[21]
Enterococcus faecalis	Promotes oxidative stress and DNA damage	Production of extracellular superoxide	↑	Yes	Role in early-stage CRC	[22]

CRC: Colorectal cancer; TLR4: Toll-like receptor 4; NF-κB: Nuclear factor kappa-B; IL: Interleukin.