Functional gastrointestinal disorders in inflammatory bowel disease: Time for a paradigm shift?

Table 1 Therapies empirically used to treat functional gastrointestinal symptoms in inflammatory bowel disease requiring validation in future clinical trials

Treatment	Gastrointestinal symptom(s) targeted
Low FODMAPs diet	Bloating, visceral pain, diarrhoea
Anti-motility agents (e.g., loperamide, ondansetron)	Exaggerated gastro-colic reflex, faecal urgency, diarrhoea, faecal incontinence
Laxatives and pro-motility agents (e.g., prucalopride, linaclotide)	Slow colonic transit, constipation
Antispasmodics	Visceral pain, bloating
Gut-brain neuromodulators (e.g., antidepressants)	Visceral pain, faecal urgency, diarrhoea
Probiotics	Bloating, altered bowel habit
Pelvic floor biofeedback	Evacuatory dysfunction, faecal urgency, faecal incontinence
Psychological interventions (e.g., hypnotherapy, cognitive behavioural therapy)	Visceral pain, bloating, altered bowel habit, non-colonic symptoms

FODMAPs: Fermentable oligo-, di-, or mono-saccharides, and polyols.