Intestinal pseudo-obstruction: An uncommon condition with heterogeneous etiology and unpredictable outcome

Table 1 Major causes for acute intestinal pseudo-obstruction (adapted from 2)

Post-surgery	Abdominal, orthopedic, neurologic, urologic, cardiac interventions, caesarean section, gynecological/pelvic surgery, renal transplantation
Pulmonary diseases	Pneumonia, mechanical ventilation, adult respiratory distress syndrome
Electrolyte disturbances and metabolic disorders	Hyponatremia, hypokalemia, hypocalcaemia or hypocalcaemia, hypomagnesaemia, alcohol abuse, liver and renal failure
Cardiovascular diseases	Myocardial infarction, cerebrovascular accident, congestive heart failure
Malignancy	Retroperitoneal neoplasia, leukaemia, metastatic cancer, pelvic radiotherapy
Infective/inflammatory	Acute cholecystitis, pancreatitis, peritonitis, systemic sepsis, herpes zoster infection, gram-negative infections,
Neurologic	Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer, multiple sclerosis, low spinal cord disease
Traumatic	Pelvic trauma, spinal cord injuries, femoral fracture
Medications	Narcotics, opiates, anticholinergics, clonidine, amphetamines, phenothiazines, steroids

Table 2 Major causes for chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction (adapted from 11)

	Neuropathic	Myopathic
Idiopathic	-Hirschsprung disease	-Nonfamilial hollow visceral myopathy
Acquired	-Familial visceral neuropathies	-Familial visceral myopathies
	-von Recklinghausen disease -Infiltrative diseases (amyloidosis) -Metabolic, endocrine and electrolyte diseorders (porphyrias, diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, hypokalemia) -Neurologic diseases (brainstem tumors, multiple sclerosis, dysautonomias) -Infectious diseases (trypanosomiasis, cytomegalovirus infections) -Neoplastic diseases (bronchial small cell carcinoma, carcinoids, pheochromocytoma) -Drugs (narcotics, antihypertensives, antidepressants)	-Infiltrative diseases (amyloidosis, systemic sclerosis)
		-Myotonic and other dystrophies