• EThcD
• Orbitrap
• electron transfer dissociation, ETD
• higher-energy collisional dissociation, HCD
• monoclonal antibody, mAb
• native mass spectrometry
• top-down
• ultraviolet photodissociation, UVPD

• Trastuzumab/chemistry
• Trastuzumab/analysis
• Antibodies, Monoclonal/chemistry
• Antibodies, Monoclonal/analysis
• Protein Denaturation
• Spectrometry, Mass, Electrospray Ionization/methods
• Tandem Mass Spectrometry/methods
• Amino Acid Sequence

• R35 GM147397 NIGMS NIH HHS

• COVID-19
• SARS-CoV-2
• immune evasion
• mucosal immunity
• vaccines

• Humans
• COVID-19/immunology
• Immunity, Mucosal
• SARS-CoV-2/immunology
• COVID-19 Vaccines/immunology
• Antibodies, Viral/immunology

• COVID-19
• SARS-CoV-2
• cellular signaling
• mitochondrial biogenesis
• mitogenome
• protein-protein interactions
• respiration

• Covi-mAbs
• SARS-CoV-2 spike
• anti-HIV glycan mAbs
• antigenicity
• fluorescence correlation spectroscopy
• in vitro binding assay

• Humans
• Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus
• SARS-CoV-2
• Pandemics
• COVID-19
• Antibodies, Neutralizing
• HIV Antibodies/analysis
• Antibodies, Monoclonal
• HIV-1
• Virion/metabolism
• Antibodies, Viral/chemistry

• I01 BX005469 BLRD VA
• R01-AI150447 (KR), R01-AI172487 (KR), and R01-AI147870 (MMS) NIH HHS
• R01 AI147870 NIAID NIH HHS
• R01 AI150447 NIAID NIH HHS
• R61 AI176561 NIAID NIH HHS
• R01 GM129325 NIGMS NIH HHS
• R01 AI172487 NIAID NIH HHS

• Preclinical study
• Receptor binding domain
• SARS-CoV-2
• Subunit vaccine
• Toxicity

• Male
• Humans
• Rats
• Rabbits
• Animals
• Dogs
• COVID-19 Vaccines/adverse effects
• COVID-19/prevention & control
• SARS-CoV-2
• Models, Animal
• Adjuvants, Immunologic
• Vaccines, Subunit

• 2020M3A9I2108860 the Bio & Medical Technology Development Program of the National Research Foundation (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Science & ICT of Korean government
• 2022M3A9J21081348 the Bio & Medical Technology Development Program of the National Research Foundation (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Science & ICT of Korean government

• COVID-19
• Inhalation therapy
• Lung diseases
• Pulmonary drug delivery

• Humans
• COVID-19
• SARS-CoV-2
• Lung
• Drug Delivery Systems

• Shiraz University of Medical Sciences

• COVID-19
• SARS-CoV-2
• curcumin
• turmeric

The world has been battling several vector-borne diseases since time immemorial. Socio-economic marginality, precipitation variations and human behavioral attributes play a major role in the proliferation of these diseases. Lockdown and social distancing have affected social behavioral aspects of human life and somehow impact on the spread of vector borne diseases. This article sheds light into the relationship between COVID-19 lockdown and global dengue burden with special focus on India. It also focuses on the interconnection of the COVID-19 pandemic (waves 1 and 2) and the alteration of human behavioral patterns in dengue cases.

We performed a systematic search using various resources from different platforms and websites, such as Medline; Pubmed; PAHO; WHO; CDC; ECDC; Epidemiology Unit Ministry of Health (Sri Lanka Government); NASA; NVBDCP from 2015 until 2021. We have included many factors, such as different geographical conditions (tropical climate, semitropic and arid conditions); GDP rate (developed nations, developing nations, and underdeveloped nations). We also categorized our data in order to conform to COVID-19 duration from 2019 to 2021. Data was extracted for the complete duration of 10 years (2012 to 2021) from various countries with different geographical region (arid region, semitropic/semiarid region and tropical region).

There was a noticeable reduction in dengue cases in underdeveloped (70–85%), developing (50–90%), and developed nations (75%) in the years 2019 and 2021. The dengue cases drastically reduced by 55–65% with the advent of COVID-19 s wave in the year 2021 across the globe.

At present, we can conclude that COVID-19 and dengue show an inverse relationship. These preliminary, data-based observations should guide clinical practice until more data are made public and basis for further medical research.

• COVID-19 has increased the burden on the health care system across the globe.

• COVID-19 has inverse relation with the occurrence of Dengue cases.

• Dengue situation is worse in countries with low GDP.

• Human behavior and social distancing have direct correlation with the number of Dengue cases.

• Cross-reactivity or overlap between Dengue and COVID-19, has proportional effect on each other.

• Baiya SARS-CoV-2 Vax 1
• COVID-19
• SARS-CoV-2
• immunogenicity
• plant-produced recombinant protein
• subunit vaccine

• COVID-19
• Coronaviridae
• SARS-CoV-2
• Spike protein
• Therapeutic
• mAbs

Coronavirus (CoV) is an important pathogen of humans and animals, which can infect humans or animals through the respiratory mucosal route. Syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is quite similar to syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) with the same receptor, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). The S and N proteins are the most important protective antigens of the SARS-CoV-2. The S protein on the viral membrane mediates the virus attachment with the host cells, and the N protein is the most abundant expression during infection. In this study, the recombinant viruses expressing the S and N proteins of SARS-CoV-2 were successfully constructed by Red/ET recombinant technology using Pseudorabies virus (PRV) strain Bartha-K61 as a vector. Genetic stability and growth kinetics analysis showed that the recombinant viruses rPRV-SARS-CoV-2-S and rPRV-SARS-CoV-2-N had similar genetic stability and proliferation characteristics to the parental PRV. The immunoassay results showed that mice immunized with recombinant viruses could produce total IgG antibodies. Therefore, PRV is feasible and promising as a viral vector to express SARS-CoV-2-S and SARS-CoV-2-N genes. This study can provide a reference for future research on live vector vaccines for domestic animals, pets, and wild animals.

The 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic remains rampant in many countries/regions. Improving the positive detection rate of COVID-19 infection is an important measure for control and prevention of this pandemic. This meta-analysis aims to systematically summarize the current characteristics of the auxiliary screening methods by serology for COVID-19 infection in real world.

Web of Science, Cochrane Library, Embase, PubMed, CNKI, and Wangfang databases were searched for relevant articles published prior to May 1^st, 2022. Data on specificity, sensitivity, positive/negative likelihood ratio, area under curve (AUC), and diagnostic odds ratio (dOR) were calculated purposefully.

Sixty-two studies were included with 35,775 participants in the meta-analysis. Among these studies, the pooled estimates for area under the summary receiver operator characteristic of IgG and IgM to predicting COVID-19 diagnosis were 0.974 and 0.928, respectively. The IgG dOR was 209.78 (95% CI: 106.12 to 414.67). The IgM dOR was 78.17 (95% CI: 36.76 to 166.25).

Our findings support serum-specific antibody detection may be the main auxiliary screening methods for COVID-19 infection in real world.

• COVID-19/diagnosis
• COVID-19/epidemiology
• COVID-19 Testing
• Humans
• Immunoglobulin G
• Immunoglobulin M
• Sensitivity and Specificity

Introduction

Vaccination is one of the pillars for the prevention of COVID-19 in healthcare workers (HCWs). The present study aims to determine the effectiveness of vaccination for COVID-19 as well as hybrid immunity in previously infected HCWs in a hospital in a developing country.

Methods

An observational study was carried out on health personnel with a complete COVID-19 vaccination schedule according to their previous infection status, with a follow-up period of 15 months.

Results

In this study, 335 subjects were enrolled, of which 32.8% had a previous infection with COVID-19. The safety of vaccines was determined by estimating the presence of adverse effects of vaccination and immunization (AEVI), with the first and second doses showing an incidence of 8.2% and 9.5% respectively, during the second and third waves. Around 5.7% of immunized personnel were sick and 8.4% in the fourth wave; the serum value of neutralizing antibodies was normal at 60.2% with no differences between vaccines (p=0.164). However, in personnel with hybrid immunity, there were normal levels of antibodies in 81.8% of cases (p= 0.023), fewer days of medical leave (6.4 days (standard deviation=1.4) (p=0.067)), higher immunoglobin values ​​(p=0.011) and an insignificantly (p=0.248) lower rate of COVID-19 presentation.

Conclusion

Vaccination, when applied to people who previously acquired natural immunity, generates a hybrid immunity that is robust, and could have a longer duration, as well as greater efficacy for new COVID-19 variants of concern.

Coronaviruses, mainly including severe acute respiratory syndrome virus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, Middle East respiratory syndrome virus, human coronavirus OC43, chicken infectious bronchitis virus, porcine infectious gastroenteritis virus, porcine epidemic diarrhea virus, and murine hepatitis virus, can cause severe diseases in humans and livestock. The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 is infecting millions of human beings with high morbidity and mortality worldwide, and the multiplicity of swine epidemic diarrhea coronavirus in swine suggests that coronaviruses seriously jeopardize the safety of public health and that therapeutic intervention is urgently needed. Currently, the most effective methods of prevention and control for coronaviruses are vaccine immunization and pharmacotherapy. However, the emergence of mutated viruses reduces the effectiveness of vaccines. In addition, vaccine developments often lag behind, making it difficult to put them into use early in the outbreak. Therefore, it is meaningful to screen safe, cheap, and broad-spectrum antiviral agents for coronaviruses. This review systematically summarizes the mechanisms and state of anti-human and porcine coronavirus drugs, in order to provide theoretical support for the development of anti-coronavirus drugs and other antivirals.

Severe disease from SARS-CoV-2 infection often progresses to multi-organ failure and results in an increased mortality rate amongst these patients. However, underlying mechanisms of SARS- CoV-2-induced multi-organ failure and subsequent death are still largely unknown. Cytokine storm, increased levels of inflammatory mediators, endothelial dysfunction, coagulation abnormalities, and infiltration of inflammatory cells into the organs contribute to the pathogenesis of COVID-19. One potential consequence of immune/inflammatory events is the acute progression of generalized edema, which may lead to death. We, therefore, examined the involvement of water channels in the development of edema in multiple organs and their contribution to organ dysfunction in a Murine Hepatitis Virus-1 (MHV-1) mouse model of COVID-19. Using this model, we recently reported multi-organ pathological abnormalities and animal death similar to that reported in humans with SARS-CoV-2 infection. We now identified an alteration in protein levels of AQPs 1, 4, 5, and 8 and associated oxidative stress, along with various degrees of tissue edema in multiple organs, which correlate well with animal survival post-MHV-1 infection. Furthermore, our newly created drug (a 15 amino acid synthetic peptide, known as SPIKENET) that was designed to prevent the binding of spike glycoproteins with their receptor(s), angiotensin- converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), and carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 1 (CEACAM1) (SARS-CoV-2 and MHV-1, respectively), ameliorated animal death and reversed altered levels of AQPs and oxidative stress post-MHV-1 infection. Collectively, our findings suggest the possible involvement of altered aquaporins and the subsequent edema, likely mediated by the virus-induced inflammatory and oxidative stress response, in the pathogenesis of COVID- 19 and the potential of SPIKENET as a therapeutic option.

• Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami

• COVID-19
• antiviral drug
• cytokine release syndrome
• cytokine storm
• immunoregulators
• neutralizing antibodies

• coronaviruses
• diagnostic nanoparticles
• nanoparticles
• vaccines

Succinimide (Asu) is the intermediate for asparagine deamidation in therapeutic proteins, and it can be readily hydrolyzed to form aspartate and iso-aspartate residues. Moreover, Asu plays an important role in the protein degradation pathways, asparagine deamidation, and aspartic acid isomerization. Here, Asu modification with a high abundance in the framework region (FR) of golimumab was first reported, the effect of denaturing buffer pH on the Asu modification homeostasis was studied, and the results revealed that it was relatively stable over a pH range of 6.0–7.0 whereas a rapid decrease at pH 8.0. Then, the peptide-based multi-attribute method (MAM) analyses showed that the Asu formation was at Asn 43 in the FR of the heavy chain. Meanwhile, the efficacy [affinity, binding and bioactivity, complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC) activity, and antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) activity] and stability of the Asu modification of golimumab were evaluated, and the current results demonstrated comparable efficacy and stability between the Asu low- and high-abundance groups. Our findings provide valuable insights into Asu modification and its effect on efficacy and stability, and this study also demonstrates that there is a need to develop a broad-spectrum, rapid, and accurate platform to identify and characterize new peaks in the development of therapeutic proteins, particularly for antibody drugs.

• Biosensor
• COVID-19
• Coronavirus
• Pandemic outbreak
• SARS-CoV-1
• SARS-CoV-2

• Biosensing Techniques/methods
• COVID-19 Testing/instrumentation
• COVID-19 Testing/methods
• CRISPR-Cas Systems
• Electrochemical Techniques
• Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
• Fluorescent Antibody Technique/methods
• Humans
• Molecular Diagnostic Techniques/instrumentation
• Molecular Diagnostic Techniques/methods
• Neutralization Tests
• Nucleic Acid Amplification Techniques/instrumentation
• Nucleic Acid Amplification Techniques/methods
• Polymerase Chain Reaction/instrumentation
• Polymerase Chain Reaction/methods
• SARS-CoV-2/pathogenicity
• Surface Plasmon Resonance

There is a growing interest in using monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) in the early stages of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection to prevent disease progression. Little is known about the efficacy of mAbs against the delta variant of concern and its clinical presentations. We evaluated the effect of casirivimab/imdevimab treatment among five delta vaccine breakthrough patients. Symptomatic non-hospitalized vaccinated patients were submitted to nasopharyngeal swabs for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 and Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS). Blood analysis and chest Computed Tomography were also performed. A cocktail of casirivimab/imdevimab was administrated, and patients were monitored weekly. Clinical evolution was evaluated by the regression of the symptoms, negative results by real-time RT-PCR, and by the need of hospitalization: these aspects were considered as significant outcomes. In four cases, symptom reversion and viral load reduction were observed within 2 days and 7 days after mAbs treatment, respectively. Only one case, suffering from thymoma, was hospitalized 2 days later because of respiratory failure, which reverted within 18 days. mAbs treatment seems to be safe and effective against the delta variant and its clinical manifestations.

• B.1.617.2
• SARS-CoV-2
• casirivimab/imdevimab
• delta variant
• monoclonal antibody treatment
• variants of concern

• Antibodies, Monoclonal/therapeutic use
• Antibodies, Monoclonal, Humanized
• Humans
• SARS-CoV-2/genetics
• COVID-19 Drug Treatment

• Allogeneic adoptive cell transfer
• Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)
• Hematopoietic stem cell (HSC)
• Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cell
• Off-the-shelf cellular product
• Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)

• Animals
• COVID-19/therapy
• Hematopoietic Stem Cells
• Humans
• Mice
• Natural Killer T-Cells
• SARS-CoV-2

• DISC2-11157 California Institute for Regenerative Medicine
• DISCCOVID19-12020 California Institute for Regenerative Medicine
• T32 AI007323 NIAID NIH HHS
• TRAN1-08533 California Institute for Regenerative Medicine
• K08 AI155232 NIAID NIH HHS

COVID-19 is a disease caused by SARS-CoV-2 (coronavirus type 2 of the severe acute respiratory syndrome), isolated in China, in December 2019. The strategy currently used by physicians is to control disease and to treat symptoms, including non-pharmacological treatments, as there is still no specific treatment for COVID-19. Thus, the aim of this article is to carry out a systematic review about non-pharmacological treatments used for COVID-19, addressing current status and consensus found in the literature.

Three databases were consulted for evidence referring to the drugs indicated for COVID-19 (Cochrane Central, MEDLINE and Embase). The following terms and combinations were used: ((“2019-nCoV” OR 2019nCoV OR nCoV2019 OR “nCoV-2019” OR “COVID-19” OR COVID19 OR “HCoV-19” OR HCoV19 OR CoV OR “2019 novel*” OR Ncov OR “n-cov” OR “SARS-CoV-2” OR “SARSCoV-2” OR “SARSCoV2” OR “SARSCoV2” OR SARSCov19 OR “SARS-Cov19” OR “SARS-Cov-19”) OR “severe acute respiratory syndrome*” OR ((corona* OR corono*) AND (virus* OR viral* OR virinae*)) AND ((“lung injury”) OR (“ventilation use”) OR (“respiratory injuries” OR prone)) AND (treatment)) NOT Drugs NOT medicines NOT antivirals.

A total of 28 articles were selected. These articles adopted one or more treatment methods for patients with severe cases of COVID-19, i.e., oxygen therapy, prone position, inhaled nitric oxide, intravenous infusion, passive immunotherapy, mesenchymal stem cells (MSC).

There is still no specific treatment approved for patients with COVID-19. The available evidence is not able yet to indicate the benefits or harms of non-pharmacological treatments, but some studies show that some treatments can play an important role in relation to COVID-19. The current consensus among researchers is that several studies using a randomized clinical trial should be carried out to provide evidence of safety and efficacy of the proposed treatments.

• Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais
• Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
• Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior

This article reviews the literature on SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and multiple sclerosis (MS). The first part of the paper focuses on the current data on immunopathology of SARS-CoV-2 and leading vaccines produced against COVID-19 infection. In the second part of the article, we discuss the effect of Disease Modifying Therapies (DMTs) on COVID-19 infection severity or SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in MS patients plus safety profile of different vaccine platforms in MS patients.

The fusion of the SARS-CoV-2 virus with cells, a key event in the pathogenesis of Covid-19, depends on the assembly of a six-helix fusion core (FC) formed by portions of the spike protein heptad repeats (HRs) 1 and 2. Despite the critical role in regulating infectivity, its distinctive features, origin, and evolution are scarcely understood. Thus, we undertook a structure-guided positional and compositional analysis of the SARS-CoV-2 FC, in comparison with FCs of related viruses, tracing its origin and ongoing evolution. We found that clustered amino acid substitutions within HR1, distinguishing SARS-CoV-2 from SARS-CoV-1, enhance local heptad stereotypy and increase sharply the FC serine-to-glutamine (S/Q) ratio, determining a neat alternate layering of S-rich and Q-rich subdomains along the post-fusion structure. Strikingly, SARS-CoV-2 ranks among viruses with the highest FC S/Q ratio, together with highly syncytiogenic respiratory pathogens (RSV, NDV), whereas MERS-Cov, HIV, and Ebola viruses display low ratios, and this feature reflects onto S/Q segregation and H-bonding patterns. Our evolutionary analyses revealed that the SARS-CoV-2 FC occurs in other SARS-CoV-1-like Sarbecoviruses identified since 2005 in Hong Kong and adjacent regions, tracing its origin to >50 years ago with a recombination-driven spread. Finally, current mutational trends show that the FC is varying especially in the FC1 evolutionary hotspot. These findings establish a novel analytical framework illuminating the sequence/structure evolution of the SARS-CoV-2 FC, tracing its long history within Sarbecoviruses, and may help rationalize the evolution of the fusion machinery in emerging pathogens and the design of novel therapeutic fusion inhibitors.

• Covid-19
• SARS-CoV-2 origin
• SARS-CoV-2 spike protein
• coiled-coil 6-helix bundle fusion core
• heptad stereotypy
• serine-rich

• COVID-19
• Cell therapy
• Convalescent plasma
• Immunoglobulins
• Monoclonal antibodies
• Repurposed drugs

• Antibodies, Monoclonal/therapeutic use
• Antibodies, Neutralizing
• Antiviral Agents/therapeutic use
• COVID-19/therapy
• Clinical Trials as Topic
• Dietary Supplements
• Humans
• Immunization, Passive/methods
• Immunoglobulins, Intravenous/therapeutic use
• Pandemics
• SARS-CoV-2
• Treatment Outcome
• COVID-19 Drug Treatment
• COVID-19 Serotherapy

• ACE2
• COVID-19
• Coronavirus
• Receptor binding domain
• SARS-CoV-2
• Smart therapeutics
• Target receptors

The COVID-19, the most infectious pandemic disease arising due to SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2) has caused huge issues globally. In this review, we discuss the impact of COVID-19 on the immune system of the human body and the protective mechanisms of the host immune system opposing viral infections. Here, we summarize the effect of the pandemic of the novel coronavirus disease on the immune system such as sleep and Behavioral Immune System (BIS) together with consideration of researcher’s observation points of view. We draw particular attention to recent up-to-date reports concerning COVID-19 drugs as well as information about the landscape document for COVID-19 vaccines released by WHO (World Health Organization), and some adverse events of COVID-19 vaccination. Additionally, can take part in the preventive appraise in opposition within this pandemic severe COVID-19 infections disease may affect some outcome in physical exercise, physical movement, healthy diets, and good nutrition are significant for supporting the immune systems and summarize AYUSH (Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, and Homeopathy) Indian medicinal systems guidelines for immunity boosting procedures during COVID-19 pandemic.

• COVID-19
• behavioral immune system
• immunity
• immunity-boosting procedures
• sleep

• Lineages
• S protein
• SARS-CoV-2
• Structure-functional analysis
• Variant of concern (VOC)

• Adaptation, Physiological/genetics
• Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2/metabolism
• COVID-19/pathology
• COVID-19/transmission
• Genome, Viral/genetics
• Humans
• Immune Evasion/genetics
• Protein Conformation
• SARS-CoV-2/genetics
• SARS-CoV-2/immunology
• Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/genetics
• Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/immunology
• Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/metabolism

• IWYS04 Indian Council of Medical Research

• Animal model
• COVID-19
• Carboxylesterases
• Coronavirus
• Drug-drug interactions, interspecies difference
• Pandemic
• Remdesivir
• SARS-CoV-2

• COVID-19
• innovation
• monoclonal antibodies
• patent reviews
• therapeutic application

• Angiotensin converting enzyme 2
• COVID-19
• Renin
• SARS-CoV-2
• Vitamin D

• Aged
• COVID-19/therapy
• Dietary Supplements
• Humans
• Immunization, Passive
• Retrospective Studies
• SARS-CoV-2
• Vitamin D/therapeutic use
• COVID-19 Serotherapy

• ACE2 Receptor
• Cytokine storm
• Interleukin-6
• Monoclonal antibodies
• SARS-CoV-2

• COVID-19
• clinical effectiveness
• convalescence
• immunoglobulin
• plasma

• Aged
• COVID-19/diagnosis
• COVID-19/therapy
• COVID-19/virology
• Compassionate Use Trials
• Critical Illness
• Female
• Humans
• Immunization, Passive
• Immunoglobulins/therapeutic use
• Male
• Republic of Korea
• SARS-CoV-2/drug effects
• Treatment Outcome
• COVID-19 Serotherapy
• COVID-19 Drug Treatment

• DC vaccine
• NK cell
• T cell
• antibody
• cellular immunotherapy
• inhalation
• respiratory disease
• respiratory viruses

• COVID-19
• adverse effects
• immunotherapeutics
• monoclonal antibodies

• Antibodies, Monoclonal/adverse effects
• COVID-19
• Cytokine Release Syndrome
• Cytokines
• Humans
• SARS-CoV-2

• COVID-19
• Coronavirus
• channel modeling
• molecular communication
• nanonetwork
• transmission model
• virus propagation

• INAE (Sanction letter no. INAE/121/AKF, Dt. 13-02-2019)

COVID-19 is an infectious and highly contagious disease caused by SARS-CoV-2. The immunotherapy strategy has a great potential to develop a permanent cure against COVID-19. Innate immune cells are in constant motion to scan molecular alteration to cells led by microbial infections throughout the body and helps in clearing invading viruses. Harnessing immunological targets for removing viral infection, generally based on the principle of enhancing the T-cell and protective immune responses. Currently-approved COVID-19 vaccines are mRNA encapsulated in liposomes that stimulate the host immune system to produce antibodies. Given the vital role of innate immunity, harnessing these immune responses opens up new hope for the generation of long-lasting and protective immunity against COVID-19.

• COVID-19
• cytokine storm
• immunotherapy
• innate immunity
• novel coronavirus

• COVID-19
• SARS-CoV-2
• biopharmaceuticals
• coronavirus
• molecular farming
• plant expression
• recombinant proteins

• Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2/metabolism
• Antibodies, Monoclonal/genetics
• Antibodies, Monoclonal/immunology
• Antibodies, Monoclonal/metabolism
• Antigen-Antibody Reactions
• COVID-19/pathology
• COVID-19/virology
• Humans
• Protein Binding
• Protein Domains/immunology
• Recombinant Proteins/genetics
• SARS-CoV-2/isolation & purification
• SARS-CoV-2/metabolism
• Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/chemistry
• Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/genetics
• Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/immunology
• Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus/metabolism
• Nicotiana/metabolism

• National Research Council of Thailand
• Baiya Phytopharm Co., Ltd

• RSV
• monoclonal antibodies
• nirsevimab
• palivizumab
• vaccine

• Antibodies, Monoclonal, Humanized/administration & dosage
• Antibodies, Monoclonal, Humanized/therapeutic use
• Antiviral Agents/therapeutic use
• Child
• Humans
• Immunization, Passive
• Palivizumab/administration & dosage
• Palivizumab/therapeutic use
• Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections/prevention & control
• Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccines/administration & dosage
• Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccines/immunology
• Vaccination