Impact of childhood trauma and parental socialization on at-risk mental state in non-clinical adolescents

Table 1 Sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of the adolescents included in this study, n (%)

Characteristics		Overall sample	Controls	Low-risk	Intermediate-risk	High-risk (ARMS)	χ2/F, P value	ES, CTR
Sex	Male	333 (48.3)	221 (53.5)	95 (40.6)	9 (39.1)	8 (42.1)	11.11, 0.011a	0.127, 3.3/-2.9, -3.3/2.9
	Female	356 (51.7)	192 (46.5)	139 (59.4)	14 (60.9)	11 (57.9)
Age (years)	-	12.6 (0.7)	12.6 (0.7)	12.6 (0.7)	12.6 (0.4)	12.6 (0.7)	0.25, 0.860	0.001
School type	Public	396 (57.4)	237 (57.4)	136 (57.9)	11 (47.8)	12 (63.2)	3.13, 0.792	0.048
	Charter	277 (40.1)	168 (40.7)	91 (38.7)	11 (47.8)	7 (36.8)
	Private	17 (2.5)	8 (1.9)	8 (3.4)	1 (4.3)	0 (0)
School year	1st CSE	350 (50.7)	205 (49.6)	121 (51.5)	14 (60.9)	10 (52.6)	1.22, 0.747	0.042
	2nd CSE	340 (49.3)	208 (50.4)	114 (48.5)	9 (39.1)	9 (47.4)
Academic performance	Fail	33 (5.9)	14 (4.3)	17 (8.7)	1 (5)	1 (6.7)	11.09, 0.269	0.082
	Pass	144 (25.9)	77 (23.8)	55 (28.1)	5 (25)	7 (46.7)
	Exceptional	246 (44.3)	148 (45.7)	85 (43.4)	8 (40)	5 (33.3)
	Outstanding	132 (23.8)	85 (26.2)	39 (19.9)	6 (30)	2 (13.3)
Prior mental health follow-up	No	451 (80.8)	269 (82)	153 (78.5)	17 (85)	12 (80)	1.23, 0.753	0.047
	Yes	107 (19.2)	59 (18)	42 (21.5)	3 (15)	3 (20)
Psychiatric medication	No	537 (95.9)	313 (95.4)	190 (96.4)	20 (100)	14 (93.3)	1.44, 0.727	0.051
	Yes	23 (4.1)	15 (4.6)	7 (3.6)	0 (0)	1 (6.7)
Mental disorder	No	614 (89)	376 (91)	202 (86)	20 (87)	16 (84.2)	4.51, 0.204	0.081
	Yes	76 (11)	37 (9)	33 (14)	3 (13)	3 (15.8)
Substance consumption	No	673 (97.5)	409 (99)	224 (95.3)	23 (100)	17 (89.5)	14.37, 0.015a	0.144, 3.1/-2.7/-2.3, -3.1/2.7/2.3
	Yes	17 (2.5)	4 (1)	11 (4.7)	0 (0)	2 (10.5)
Video game addiction	No	557 (99.5)	327 (99.7)	195 (99)	20 (100)	15 (100)	1.36, 0.639	0.049
	Yes	3 (0.5)	1 (0.3)	2 (1)	0 (0)	0 (0)
Bullying	Never	414 (75.1)	261 (80.6)	133 (68.6)	11 (57.9)	9 (64.3)	16.09, 0.015a	0.121, 3.5/-2.6, -2.1, -2.6/2.5
	Maybe	79 (14.3)	38 (11.7)	32 (16.5)	5 (26.3)	4 (28.6)
	Yes	58 (10.5)	25 (7.7)	29 (14.9)	3 (15.8)	1 (7.1)
Needs mental health care	No	459 (83)	283 (87.1)	154 (79)	13 (68.4)	9 (64.3)	12.90, 0.048a	0.108, 3, -2.7
	Maybe	57 (10.3)	24 (7.4)	26 (13.3)	4 (21.1)	3 (21.4)
	Yes	37 (6.7)	18 (5.5)	15 (7.7)	2 (10.5)	2 (14.3)

^aP < 0.05.

CSE: Compulsory secondary education; ARMS: At-risk mental state; ES: Effect size evaluated by Partial Eta Squared; CTR: Corrected typified residuals.

Table 2 Variables related to trauma, n (%)

Characteristics		Overall sample	Controls	Low-risk	Intermediate-risk	High-risk (ARMS)	χ2/F P value	ES CTR/significant differences
DTS (total score), mean ± SD		28.45 ± 27.32	16.06 ± 18.01	42.76 ± 25.44	69.91 ± 33.80	71.11 ± 31.15	128.03, < 0.001c	0.363, C < B/C < I/C < A/B < I/B < A
DTS (cut-off point)	No	480 (70.8)	363 (89.2)	111 (48.5)	4 (17.4)	2 (10.5)	186.90, < 0.001c	0.525, 12.9/-9.1/-5.7/-5.9 -12.0/9.1/5.7/5.9
	Yes	198 (29.2)	44 (10.8)	118 (51.5)	19 (82.6)	17 (89.5)
Physical/emotional neglect	No	646 (94)	395 (95.9)	212 (91)	20 (87)	19 (100)	9.59, 0.032a	0.118, 2.5/-2.4, -2.5/2.4
	Yes	41 (6)	17 (4.1)	21 (9)	3 (13)	0 (0)
Sexual abuse	No	681 (99.1)	411 (99.8)	228 (97.9)	23 (100)	19 (100)	6.62, 0.097	0.098
	Yes	6 (0.9)	1 (0.2)	5 (2.1)	0 (0)	0 (0)
Abuse	No	632 (92)	392 (95.1)	207 (88.8)	19 (82.6)	14 (73.7)	20.10, 0.001b	0.193, 3.7/-2.2/-3, -3.7/2.2/1.7
	Yes	55 (8)	20 (4.9)	26 (11.2)	4 (17.4)	5 (26.3)
Natural disaster	No	673 (98)	400 (97.1)	231 (99.1)	23 (100)	19 (100)	4.07, 0.203	0.077
	Yes	14 (2)	12 (2.9)	2 (0.9)	0 (0)	0 (0)
Interpersonal event	No	673 (98)	407 (98.8)	226 (97)	22 (95.7)	18 (94.7)	4.09, 0.180	0.077
	Yes	14 (2)	5 (1.2)	7 (3)	1 (4.3)	1 (5.3)
Grief of a death	No	560 (81.5)	324 (78.6)	197 (84.5)	21 (91.3)	18 (94.7)	7.34, 0.056	0.103
	Yes	127 (18.5)	88 (21.4)	36 (15.5)	2 (8.7)	1 (5.3)
Grief without a death	No	667 (97.1)	403 (97.8)	223 (95.7)	22 (95.7)	19 (100)	3.07, 0.363	0.067
	Yes	20 (2.9)	9 (2.2)	10 (4.3)	1 (4.3)	0 (0)
Interpersonal problems	No	635 (92.4)	382 (92.7)	215 (92.3)	20 (87)	18 (94.7)	1.18, 0.778	0.042
	Yes	52 (7.6)	30 (7.3)	18 (7.7)	3 (13)	1 (5.3)
Others	No	552 (80.3)	343 (83.3)	180 (77.3)	17 (73.9)	12 (63.2)	7.77, 0.049a	0.106, 3, -2.3
	Yes	135 (19.7)	69 (16.7)	53 (22.7)	6 (26.1)	7 (36.8)

^aP < 0.05.

^bP < 0.01.

^cP < 0.001.

DTS: Davidson Trauma Scale; ARMS: At-risk mental state; ES: Effect size evaluated by Partial Eta Squared; CTR: Corrected typified residuals.

Table 3 Parental socialisation, mean ± SD

Characteristics	Overall sample	Controls	Low-risk	Intermediate-risk	High-risk (ARMS)	F, P value	ES, significant differences
Affection and communication	75.18 ± 9.78	77.65 ± 7.82	72.02 ± 10.76	70.70 ± 13.99	66.05 ± 11.53	26.69, < 0.001b	0.106, C > B/C > I/C > A/L > A
Control and structure	36 ± 5.08	36.49 ± 5.01	35.18 ± 5.27	36.87 ± 3.87	34.42 ± 4.24	3.58, 0.014a	0.016, C > B

^aP < 0.05.

^bP < 0.01.

ARMS: At-risk mental state; ES: Effect size evaluated by Partial Eta Squared; CTR: Corrected typified residuals.

Table 4 Ordinal logistic regression: Dependent variable group (control, low-risk, intermediate-risk, or high-risk of ARMS)

Variable	Unadjusted model			Adjusted model
	OR	95%CI	P value	OR	95%CI	P value
Sex (female)	1.659	1.225-2.247	0.001b	1.004	0.676-1.492	0.984
Substance use	3.568	1.489-8.550	0.004b	1.735	0.581-5.178	0.323
Bullying	2.110	1.246-3.571	0.005b	1.402	0.740-2.653	0.300
Potential mental health need	2.297	1.345-3.922	0.002b	1.543	0.840-2.836	0.162
Affect and communication	0.937	0.922-0.952	< 0.001c	0.971	0.946-0.997	0.029a
Control and structure	0.959	0.932-0.987	0.005b	1.017	0.969-1.067	0.499
DTS score	1.055	1.047-1.063	< 0.001c	1.046	1.037-1.056	< 0.001c
Physical-emotional neglect	2.037	1.121-3.702	0.020a	1.039	0.463-2.328	0.927
Abuse	2.996	1.756-5.110	< 0.001c	1.931	0.999-3.734	0.050
Other traumas	1.607	1.111-2.325	0.012a	1.785	1.091-2.919	0.021a

^aP < 0.05.

^bP < 0.01.

^cP < 0.001.

DTS: Davidson Trauma Scale; CI: Confidence interval; OR: Odds ratio.