Influence of work-family facilitation on work engagement among physical education teachers

Abstract

BACKGROUND

Enhancing work engagement among physical education (PE) teachers is crucial for building a strong sports nation and fostering educational advancement. However, PE teachers frequently experience conflicts between work and family roles, significantly impacting their professional involvement. The concept of work-family facilitation, highlighting mutual facilitation between work and family domains, has considerable theoretical and practical significance but remains underexplored in this context. This study integrates ecosystem theory, spillover theory, social exchange theory, and two-factor theory to systematically explore the mechanism through which work-family facilitation influences work engagement. Specifically, it investigates the roles of psychological resilience and job satisfaction in this relationship, providing a novel theoretical perspective and empirical evidence.

AIM

To systematically explore the mechanism through which work-family facilitation influences work engagement among PE teachers.

METHODS

A cross-sectional questionnaire survey was conducted among 436 PE teachers. Structural equation modeling was used to examine relationships among variables and assess mediating effects.

RESULTS

Work-family facilitation positively correlated with psychological resilience, job satisfaction, and work engagement (r = 0.323-0.705, P < 0.001). Psychological resilience and job satisfaction fully mediated the relationship between work-family facilitation and work engagement, demonstrating a significant chain mediation effect.

CONCLUSION

This study confirms that promoting work-family facilitation enhances psychological resilience and job satisfaction, thereby significantly boosting work engagement among PE teachers. These findings underline the importance of targeted interventions to enhance work-family resources, psychological resilience, and job satisfaction, contributing to theoretical advancements and practical implications for educational management.

Key Words: Physical education teacher; Work-family facilitation; Psychological resilience; Job satisfaction; Work engagement

Core Tip: This study investigates how work-family facilitation affects work engagement among physical education teachers. Drawing upon ecological systems theory and social exchange theory, it introduces psychological resilience and job satisfaction as key mediators. Using structural equation modeling on data from 436 physical education teachers, results reveal a full chain mediation effect. Our findings provide novel insights into how positive work-family dynamics foster teacher engagement, offering theoretical and practical implications for educational policy and mental health support.

INTRODUCTION

The 19^th National Congress of the Communist Party of China emphasized the pivotal role of education in national rejuvenation, underscoring the necessity of cultivating a high-quality, professional, and innovative teaching workforce. Building a strong educational system has become a foundational strategy for achieving national rejuvenation[1]. Teachers are critical to the educational progress, particularly physical education (PE) teachers, who play an indispensable role in imparting sports health knowledge and fostering students’ physical fitness. As the nation actively promotes “Healthy China” and “Sports Power” strategies, enhancing PE teachers’ work engagement has become a crucial priority. However, despite their significant role, PE teachers frequently face various challenges within the current educational environment. In many schools, PE is marginalized within the overall curriculum structure, often being overshadowed or occupied by other academic subjects, resulting in insufficient attention and support from school administrators. Moreover, PE teachers experience heightened occupational pressures, including the responsibility of ensuring student safety during sports activities, difficulties in achieving fair and timely professional title evaluations, and limited opportunities for career advancement. These challenges collectively contribute to reduced job engagement and motivation among PE teachers, negatively impacting the quality of PE provided to students.

Furthermore, PE teachers often experience considerable tension between their professional roles and family responsibilities, leading to significant work-family conflicts. Such conflicts adversely affect teachers’ psychological well-being and their commitment to professional duties[2-4]. Historically, research in this domain has predominantly focused on work-family conflict and its negative outcomes, whereas positive interactions, such as work-family facilitation, remain under-explored[5-7]. Recent studies indicate that work-family facilitation can positively enhance job engagement, satisfaction, and overall psychological health[8-11]. However, systematic examinations of how work-family facilitation specifically affects PE teachers’ job engagement through integrated psychological mechanisms are limited[12-14].

Existing literature tends to explore mediators independently, including job satisfaction[15,16] a psychological resilience[17,18], rarely adopting an integrated approach that simultaneously considers psychological resilience and job satisfaction[19-21]. As a key personal resource, psychological resilience enables individuals to effectively manage stress and adapt to diverse challenges[22,23], while job satisfaction has consistently been associated with higher engagement, productivity, and employee retention[24,25]. Investigating these two mediators concurrently could provide comprehensive insights into how positive work-family interactions sustainably enhance PE teachers’ work engagement. To address this critical research gap, this study integrates ecological systems theory, spillover-crossover model, social exchange theory, and two-factor theory to propose a theoretical model examining the sequential mediating roles of psychological resilience and job satisfaction in the relationship between work-family facilitation and PE teachers’ work engagement. By systematically synthesizing previously isolated theoretical frameworks and elucidating the internal psychological mechanisms underlying work engagement, this research significantly advances current literature on work-family facilitation and offers actionable insights for educational management practices aimed at improving the professional experiences of PE teachers.

Concept definitions

Work-family facilitation: Existing studies suggest that work and family domains are not only in conflict but can also mutually reinforce each other[26]. As scholars have continued to deepen their investigation into the work-family interface, research on work-family facilitation has steadily evolved. By reviewing the relevant literature, this study summarizes several representative perspectives. Frone[27] posited that the opportunities, experiences, and positive development gained in one domain (work or family) can facilitate an individual’s performance in the other domain (family or work). Wayne et al[28] stated that the benefits and experiences gained through role engagement in one domain can enhance an individual’s role performance in the other domain. Greenhaus and Powell[29] argued that the experiences acquired in one domain (family or work) can improve the quality of life in the corresponding domain (work or family). Powell[30] found that the benefits gained from one role help improve the quality of the other role in terms of emotional resources and performance. Carlson et al[31] further indicated that investment in one domain can promote an individual’s development in the other domain. This mutual enrichment is bidirectional: Dedicating oneself to work can contribute to improved family life, and good family relationships can in turn enhance one’s work performance. Tang et al[32] described work-family facilitation as the degree to which one’s involvement in either the family or work domain positively contributes to the other domain. Lv and Li[33] defined work-family facilitation as the transfer and application of the gains from performing a role in one domain to enhance performance in the other domain.

Earlier researchers diverged in their conceptualizations of work-family facilitation. Some studies use the term work-family facilitation interchangeably with broader constructs like work-family enrichment or general facilitation, while others focus on just a single aspect of enrichment. Consequently, the conceptual scope of work-family facilitation has remained relatively imprecise. Drawing from prior research, this study adopts an integrated definition of work-family facilitation defined by Tang et al[32], which synthesizes work-family facilitation, gain, and facilitation. This definition accounts for both the processes by which role gains flow from work to family and from family to work, as well as the occurrence of enrichment at the individual and system levels.

Recent studies have further emphasized that in the context of hybrid work models and remote teaching, work-family facilitation has significantly enhanced teachers’ job satisfaction, mental well-being, and work engagement[34]. These emerging findings reflect the evolving nature and relevance of work-family facilitation, particularly under new work arrangements shaped by technological and societal changes. This study specifically defines work-family facilitation as the mutual transfer and enhancement of positive resources, such as emotional support, knowledge, and skills, between work and family roles among PE teachers. This innovative conceptualization underscores the unique context of PE teachers, whose roles involve distinctive professional responsibilities and family expectations that amplify the significance of resource transfer between these domains.

Psychological resilience: The concept of “resilience” originates from physics, referring to the capacity of a material to regain its shape after compression by an external force. Over time, the notion of resilience has been applied to individuals’ psychological characteristics. A review of the literature from the past decade reveals that scholars often broadly define the term “psychological resilience”. With the advancement of research on psychological resilience, these definitions have been continually refined. In this study, we summarize some of the most representative definitions. Luthar et al[35] define psychological resilience as the ability of an individual to adapt and function well in the face of severe threats or challenges. Markstrom et al[36] suggest that resilience is a personality trait or a stable capacity that allows individuals to cope with stressful life events and ultimately fosters personal growth. Fergus et al[37] hold that resilience involves the process of recovery and positive adaptation when confronting life’s adversities. Chinese scholars Yu and Zhang[38] interpret resilience as effective coping and adaptation when faced with loss, difficulties, or adversity. Phillips[39] believes that resilience manifests as an individual’s ability to utilize learned strategies, enhance confidence, and achieve positive outcomes when confronted with crises or major challenges. Liu et al[40] define resilience as an individual’s effective adaptation to misfortune, adversity, or setbacks, enabling them to maintain normal psychological and physiological functioning under stress. In sum, psychological resilience is recognized as a positive psychological state that endows individuals with sufficient confidence to tackle difficult tasks and persevere despite obstacles. Individuals with high resilience typically bounce back from failures and exhibit an indomitable spirit. Although different researchers define resilience in slightly different ways depending on the research context, in the present study, we find the succinct and comprehensive definition by Yu and Zhang[38] especially suitable for understanding resilience in the Chinese context.

Building on these foundational definitions, the latest academic research from 2023 to 2024 has placed particular emphasis on the buffering role of psychological resilience in helping teachers cope with post-pandemic job burnout and occupational stress. Strategies such as psychological capital training have been proposed as effective means to enhance teachers’ resilience levels[41]. These insights underscore the practical value of resilience as not merely a conceptual trait, but a dynamic capacity that can be cultivated to support teachers’ well-being in increasingly complex educational environments. In this study, psychological resilience specifically refers to PE teachers’ ability to effectively adapt and recover from the dual pressures of their profession (such as athletic risks, student safety responsibilities, academic stress) and family responsibilities. Given the unique occupational context, PE teachers rely heavily on their resilience to sustain professional efficacy and emotional balance.

Job satisfaction: The term “job satisfaction” was first coined by Hoppock[42] in his book Job Satisfaction. Hoppock[42] described job satisfaction as an employee’s overall sense of gratification or fulfillment derived from work. The introduction of this concept immediately attracted scholarly interest, leading to extensive investigations and various definitions based on different research backgrounds and objectives. Robbins[43] referred to job satisfaction as an employee’s sense of fulfillment with their current work. The higher the level of fulfillment, the higher the reported job satisfaction. Lévy-garboua[44] viewed job satisfaction as an indicator of how much an individual likes or prefers work-related experiences compared to contemporaneous external opportunities. In China, Xu and Zhao[45] defined job satisfaction as an individual’s psychological and physiological sense of fulfillment derived from workplace experiences. Divergent definitions from various scholars reflect different understandings of job satisfaction. Ultimately, how one interprets its connotation depends on the research context and needs. In this study, the definition proposed by Xu and Zhao[45] - job satisfaction as an individual’s physiological and psychological sense of fulfillment in their work environment - resonates with local circumstances and thus forms the basis of the present research.

Recent literature indicates that with the implementation of the “Double Reduction” policy and changes in the remote teaching environment, the structure of teachers’ job satisfaction has undergone significant shifts. Among these, instructional technology support and professional recognition have emerged as new key factors[46]. These findings highlight that beyond traditional drivers such as compensation and promotion opportunities, evolving educational reforms and work modes have introduced new dimensions of satisfaction that require closer examination. In this study, we uniquely conceptualize job satisfaction among PE teachers by encompassing traditional aspects such as salary, promotion, and benefits, while distinctly highlighting satisfaction derived from achievements specific to PE, such as successful student athletic development, contributions to school sports culture, and fulfillment of national sports objectives. Thus, job satisfaction in this context includes both extrinsic and intrinsic motivational factors.

Work engagement: Since Kahn[47] proposed the concept of work engagement (also referred to as work involvement), scholars have extensively examined this concept and offered various perspectives. Kahn[47] defined work engagement as “the simultaneous employment and expression of a person’s preferred self in task behaviors that promote connections to work and to others, personal presence (physical, cognitive, emotional), and active, full role performances”. Rich et al[48] noted that work engagement reflects a state in which individuals fully invest themselves in their work roles and willingly sacrifice personal time to perform extra work. Christian et al[49] also observed that engaged employees invest personal energies in their work performance and strive to maintain this state. Wang et al[50] suggested that work engagement is the combination of work capability (vigor and energy) and work commitment (dedication and involvement). Zhang and Gan[51] viewed work engagement as a positive, fulfilling, and work-related psychological state. Among these definitions, the concept introduced by Zhang and Gan[51] is most appropriate to China’s local setting; therefore, we adopt this specific interpretation of work engagement in this study.

Recent studies have pointed out that hybrid teaching models significantly impact teachers’ levels of work engagement. The positive roles of psychological resilience and work-family facilitation have been further highlighted under uncertain environments[52]. These findings suggest that in increasingly complex and dynamic educational contexts, teachers’ sustained engagement is closely tied to their ability to adapt, draw on internal psychological resources, and benefit from supportive work-family dynamics. In the specific context of PE teachers, work engagement is defined here as the extent of teachers’ enthusiasm, vigor, and dedication in fulfilling their teaching responsibilities, including student training, sports culture promotion, and safety responsibilities. This conceptualization highlights the distinct and expanded responsibilities unique to PE teaching. Although existing literature has extensively explored the bilateral relationships among the above variables, recent studies from 2022 to 2025 have emphasized that in the post-pandemic era, the complex and dynamic interactions among these factors have yet to be fully analyzed within an integrated framework[53]. Therefore, this study aims to fill this research gap by proposing a comprehensive model that integrates work-family facilitation, psychological resilience, job satisfaction, and work engagement.

Theoretical frameworks

Ecological systems theory: Bronfenbrenner is widely regarded as the founder of Ecological Systems Theory, emphasizing that an individual’s development is primarily shaped by the natural environment and its ongoing interactions. In the ecology of human development, Bronfenbrenner identifies four environmental systems: the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. The microsystem refers to environments with which an individual has direct contact, such as parental guidance, peer support, and school instruction. The mesosystem involves interactions among elements within the microsystem, including home-school communication and school-enterprise collaborations. The exosystem influences individual development despite the individual not directly participating. Examples include a parent’s workplace and the school’s leadership structure. Finally, the macrosystem encompasses broader social systems such as culture, institutions, laws, and political frameworks, and represents a set of overarching ideologies. Bronfenbrenner subsequently added the chronosystem, emphasizing the temporal dimension in understanding individual developmental processes, such as socioeconomic changes and social and cultural transformations. From both spatial and temporal perspectives, ecological systems theory offers novel insights into how an environment shapes personal development, making it a valuable framework for investigating the factors that influence PE teachers’ psychological resilience and for formulating corresponding strategies.

Spillover theory: Spillover Theory posits that individuals transfer the emotions, attitudes, skills, and behaviors from one domain (work or family) to another. A prevalent perspective in the study of the work-family interface is that influences in one domain can spill over into the other. Spillover Theory also suggests that experiences in the work environment may parallel those in the family environment[54]. Thus, an individual’s perceptions of work form part of their broader outlook on life. Zedeck and Mosier[55] noted that employees often bring mood, attitudes, skills, and behaviors from the workplace into the family setting. Edwards and Rothbard[56] pointed out that spillover can be either positive or negative. Work-family facilitation includes satisfaction and motivation, potentially enhancing energy and satisfaction at home. In contrast, Duxbury and Higgins[57] emphasized that negative spillover happens when work-related problems and conflicts deplete an individual’s resources, hindering full participation in family life. Compared to negative spillover, work-family facilitation has historically received less scholarly attention.

Social exchange theory: Social exchange theory examines how individuals seek to maximize rewards and minimize costs in social interactions. A “reward” is defined as any beneficial outcome gained from social exchange, though the value placed on such a reward varies across individuals. A formal organization is a system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of two or more persons. A critical factor for organizational sustainability is the willingness of individuals to contribute their efforts, and such contributions hinge on suitable inducements. The organization must provide inducements commensurate with the personal efforts of its members; otherwise, they will withhold their contributions. In the employee-organization relationship, the organization as a unified entity strives to balance inducements and contributions. When the organization’s inducements exceed the employee’s efforts, the employee tends to experience greater satisfaction. At the same time, employees must ensure that their contributions enable the organization to continue offering those inducements. Understanding social exchange theory helps interpret the present study’s findings. By viewing the provision of organizational resources and employees’ reciprocal efforts through the lens of social exchange, one gains theoretical support for this study’s research framework and conclusions.

Two-factor theory: Two-factor theory, also known as the motivation-hygiene theory, redefines ‘satisfaction’ and ‘dissatisfaction’. Herzberg contended that the opposite of satisfaction is ‘no satisfaction’, not ‘dissatisfaction’, and similarly, the opposite of dissatisfaction is ‘no dissatisfaction’, not ‘satisfaction’. Factors related to job content, such as achievement, recognition, and opportunities for personal growth, tend to enhance job satisfaction and are thus labeled ‘motivators’. Conversely, factors related to the work environment, such as salary, policies, and interpersonal relationships, are categorized as ‘hygiene factors’. Herzberg’s further research indicated that while motivational factors increase employees’ enthusiasm, their absence does not necessarily lower satisfaction. In contrast, the absence of hygiene factors causes dissatisfaction, whereas their presence does not necessarily enhance satisfaction[58]. Applying two-factor theory provides a theoretical basis for interpreting PE teachers’ job satisfaction in this study. It serves as a framework to validate the study’s authenticity and reliability, reinforcing the necessity of considering both intrinsic and extrinsic job factors when analyzing job satisfaction levels.

Related research on the main variables

Research on work-family facilitation: Studies have shown that work-family facilitation is positively related to various individual and organizational outcomes such as employee well-being, job satisfaction, and performance. For instance, Grzywacz et al[59] found that work-family facilitation was significantly correlated with higher self-reported psychological health. Karatepe and Kilic[60] demonstrated that employees’ perceptions of work-family facilitation affect family satisfaction; employees experiencing higher levels of work-family facilitation display better job performance. Aryee et al[61] found that work-family facilitation has a significant positive correlation with both job satisfaction and affective organizational commitment. Likewise, Wayne et al[62] showed that work-family facilitation positively predicts affective organizational commitment and lowers turnover intentions. In China, Zhang et al[63] reported that work-family facilitation contributes to employees’ job satisfaction, enhances affective organizational commitment, and reduces turnover intentions.

Measurement dimensions of work-family facilitation: In this study, we employ the work-family facilitation scale developed by Tang et al[32]. The scale comprises 14 items, divided into two subscales: work-to-family enrichment and family-to-work enrichment. It exhibits satisfactory reliability and validity using a Likert 5-point format. Higher total scores indicate higher levels of work-family facilitation. Jia and Su[64] used this scale to measure employees’ work-family facilitation. Similarly, Gao et al[65] also adopted the Tang et al[32] scale in their research on the relationships among employees’ work-family facilitation, psychological capital, and career success.

Research on psychological resilience: “Psychological resilience” or “mental resilience” is often examined in relation to stress, emotions, social support, cognition, self-esteem, and mental health. Friborg et al[66] found that higher resilience levels were associated with greater self-efficacy, better interpersonal relationships, and stronger self-perception. A previous study[67] found that the parenting style and family atmosphere significantly influenced children’s psychological resilience. Most scholars investigating resilience factors rely on quantitative measures, although qualitative approaches also exist. One such example would be a qualitative study on the resilience of female graduate students coping with relationship breakups.

Measurement dimensions of psychological resilience: To facilitate quantitative analysis, numerous resilience scales have been developed, many of which share high overlap in their dimensions and content. In this study, we utilize the Psychological Resilience Scale revised by Yu and Zhang[38], comprising 25 items divided into three subscales, tenacity, self-improvement, and optimism, with satisfactory reliability and validity. It uses a Likert 5-point scoring system, with higher totals signifying stronger resilience. Zou et al[68] employed this scale in examining the roles of emotional regulation, self-efficacy and positive psychological capital in the relationship between resilience and college students’ mental health. Many other scholars have also applied this scale to measure individual resilience.

Research on job satisfaction: Vroom[69] concluded that factors affecting job satisfaction include management, compensation, job tasks, organizational structure, promotion opportunities, work environment, and peer relationships. Robbins and Judge[70] found that job satisfaction can be influenced by the job itself, the level of challenge, work conditions, reward systems, coworker relationships, and personality traits. Price[71] highlighted job embedment, communication, income, and centralized authority as key factors affecting job satisfaction. In a 1995 study, Wang and Wang[72] noted that job satisfaction differs across occupational categories: teachers reported the highest satisfaction, while management personnel reported the lowest. The same study also found that female employees generally had higher satisfaction levels than their male counterparts.

Measurement dimensions of job satisfaction: This study uses the teacher job satisfaction questionnaire. The questionnaire comprises ten items categorized into intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction. It uses a Likert 5-point format, with higher scores signifying greater job satisfaction. It has demonstrated good reliability and validity. Ji[73] employed this questionnaire in examining the relationship among teachers’ perceived organizational support, organizational trust, and job satisfaction.

Research on work engagement: Yang and Zhai[74] investigated employees in a service enterprise and concluded that intrinsic motivation positively impacts work engagement. Guo et al[75] explored how career growth opportunities influence employees’ work engagement and found a significant positive relationship. Weng et al[76] focused on research personnel, discovering that career growth is positively related to work engagement and that work engagement mediates the relationship between career growth and job performance.

Measurement dimensions of work engagement: This study adopts the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) modified by Zhang and Gan[51]. The scale includes 15 items divided into three dimensions: vigor, dedication, and absorption. It has demonstrated satisfactory reliability and validity. Responses are scored on a 7-point Likert scale, where higher scores indicate stronger work engagement. Zou et al[77] applied this scale when exploring factors influencing work engagement among college teachers. A review of the research on work-family facilitation, psychological resilience, job satisfaction, and work engagement found that these four variables may be interrelated. However, no research has yet examined their relationships collectively. In this study, we propose a model incorporating these variables to explore their interplay. In reviewing the measurement dimensions, four instruments were selected: (1) The work-family facilitation scale revised by Tang et al[32]; (2) The teacher job satisfaction scale compiled by Xu and Zhao[45]; (3) The Psychological Resilience Scale by Yu and Zhang[38] (noted as adapted from localized modification of the General Well-Being Scale into Chinese text), and the UWES modified by Zhang and Gan[51].

Despite extensive literature on each of the four constructs individually, recent studies have primarily focused on dyadic relationships without forming a comprehensive theoretical model that captures their dynamic interplay, particularly within the unique occupational context of PE teachers. Moreover, limited attention has been paid to the chain-mediating mechanisms through which work-family facilitation affects work engagement via psychological resilience and job satisfaction. Additionally, while some recent findings have emerged in the context of post-pandemic educational reforms and remote work transitions, few studies have integrated these practical developments into a unified analytical framework. Therefore, this study fills an important gap by proposing a theoretically grounded, empirically tested model that links these four variables within a single structural path. This effort not only enhances our understanding of PE teachers’ professional experiences but also offers actionable insights for promoting teacher well-being and performance in complex educational environments.

Proposed research hypotheses

Effect of PE teachers’ work-family facilitation on work engagement: According to spillover theory, work-family facilitation promotes positive emotional transfer across multiple roles, thus ensuring sufficient resources for work engagement. Wang et al[78] found that work-family facilitation directly influences individual job preparedness and engagement. Similarly, Yang et al[79] demonstrated a significant effect on work engagement. Recent studies also support this relationship, emphasizing that work-family facilitation contributes to job engagement by enhancing motivation and emotional stability[80]. Hypothesis 1 is that PE teachers’ work-family facilitation has a significant direct effect on their work engagement.

Effect of PE teachers’ work-family facilitation on psychological resilience: Psychological resilience is generally shaped by protective factors from the individual, family, and community. Therefore, the interplay between work and family is crucial to PE teachers’ psychological development. Although direct studies on the relationship between work-family facilitation and psychological resilience remain scarce, ecological systems theory suggests that positive environments in the work and family domains foster the development of individuals’ positive psychological states, potentially enhancing psychological resilience. Previous studies indicate a positive correlation between work-family facilitation and psychological capital (hope, self-efficacy, resilience, and optimism), suggesting that higher work-family facilitation supports better mental health[81]. Hypothesis 2 is that PE teachers’ work-family facilitation has a significant effect on their psychological resilience.

Effect of PE teachers’ psychological resilience on work engagement: Zeng et al[82] found that psychological resilience significantly influences work engagement. Similarly, Yujia and Hua et al[83] observed that psychological resilience strongly influences work engagement and can function as a mediating variable. Additional research highlights the role of resilience in sustaining long-term professional engagement among educators[84]. Hypothesis 3 is that PE teachers’ psychological resilience has a significant effect on their work engagement.

The mediating role of psychological resilience between work-family facilitation and work engagement: Spillover theory posits that work-family facilitation promotes positive emotional transfer across domains, leading to sufficient resources for engagement. As noted, Wang et al[78] confirmed that work-family facilitation directly influences work preparedness and engagement. Meanwhile, Zeng et al[82] found that psychological resilience significantly affects work engagement, and resilience can serve as a mediator. Further studies suggest that resilience helps translate work-family benefits into professional commitment[85]. Hypothesis 4 is that psychological resilience serves as an independent mediator in the relationship between PE teachers’ work-family facilitation and work engagement.

Effect of PE teachers’ work-family facilitation on job satisfaction: From the perspective of social exchange theory, when employees perceive that their work enhances family life, they are more inclined to reciprocate with positive attitudes in the workplace. Lu and Luo[86] found that work-family facilitation significantly affects job satisfaction. Other studies confirm this effect, demonstrating that individuals with enriched work-family experiences exhibit higher job satisfaction[87]. Hypothesis 5 is that PE teachers’ work-family facilitation significantly affects their job satisfaction.

Effect of PE teachers’ job satisfaction on work engagement: Wu et al[88] reported a significant impact of PE teachers’ job satisfaction on their work engagement. Similarly, Sun[89] noted the same effect. Additional research highlights job satisfaction as a key determinant of professional engagement, particularly in education sectors[90]. Hypothesis 6 is that PE teachers’ job satisfaction significantly affects their work engagement.

The mediating role of job satisfaction between work-family facilitation and work engagement: Based on social exchange theory, employees who recognize the work-family facilitation from work to family tend to respond more favorably to organizational goals. Lu and Luo[86] verified that work-family facilitation positively affects job satisfaction. In turn, Wu et al[88] showed a significant impact of PE teachers’ job satisfaction on work engagement. Recent evidence supports job satisfaction as a vital link between work-family dynamics and work engagement[91]. Hypothesis 7 is that job satisfaction is an independent mediator between PE teachers’ work-family facilitation and work engagement.

Effect of PE teachers’ psychological resilience on job satisfaction: Drawing on two-factor theory and prior research, Kong et al[92] categorized job satisfaction determinants into four domains: personal factors, organizational factors, family/social factors, and psychological factors. Psychological factors encompass stress (role-related, job-related, challenge-based, or obstructive) and fatigue. Some scholars have suggested that emotional exertion and positive psychological capital (hope, self-efficacy, resilience, and optimism) are predictors of higher job satisfaction. Additional studies further support the link between resilience and satisfaction in high-stress professions[93]. Hypothesis 8 is that PE teachers’ psychological resilience significantly affects their job satisfaction.

The chain mediating role of psychological resilience and job satisfaction: As discussed, both job satisfaction and psychological resilience can mediate the relationship between work-family facilitation and work engagement, and resilience may further influence job satisfaction. A previous study demonstrated that individuals with greater resilience experience higher job satisfaction, which in turn enhances engagement[94]. Hypothesis 9 is that psychological resilience and job satisfaction jointly act as a chain mediator between PE teachers’ work-family facilitation and their work engagement.

Research model

Based on the literature review above, this study constructs a comprehensive theoretical research model (Figure 1), systematically integrating ecological systems theory, spillover theory, social exchange theory, and two-factor theory. This model explicitly illustrates the logical relationships among work-family facilitation, psychological resilience, job satisfaction, and job engagement in the context of PE teachers. The theoretical foundations for each of the pathways within this model are specified below.

Figure 1 Research framework.

Work-family facilitation to psychological resilience: Ecological systems theory suggests that positive interactions within individuals’ micro-systems, such as family and workplace, significantly enhance their psychological resources, contributing to greater psychological resilience. Thus, supportive family and work environments increase PE teachers’ ability to effectively handle stress and adversity.

Work-family facilitation to job satisfaction: Social exchange theory explains that when teachers perceive positive interactions and resources flowing between work and family domains, they positively reciprocate towards their organizations, leading to increased job satisfaction.

Psychological resilience to job satisfaction: Drawing upon two-factor theory, psychological resilience serves as a motivational factor, helping individuals manage workplace challenges more effectively. Teachers with higher psychological resilience are thus more likely to experience enhanced job satisfaction through feelings of achievement and personal fulfillment.

Psychological resilience to job engagement: According to ecological systems theory and two-factor theory, increased psychological resilience improves PE teachers’ capability to cope with job-related stress, making them more energetic, enthusiastic, and deeply involved in their work tasks, thereby promoting job engagement.

Job satisfaction to job engagement: Consistent with social exchange theory, increased job satisfaction fosters reciprocal positive behaviors from teachers towards their organization, resulting in higher levels of job engagement.

Chain mediation (work-family facilitation, psychological resilience, job satisfaction, and job engagement): Integrating spillover theory with the other theoretical perspectives, this chain mediation pathway suggests that positive experiences in the family domain spill over into the workplace, sequentially strengthening psychological resilience and job satisfaction, ultimately enhancing PE teachers’ job engagement. By systematically grounding each relationship in robust theoretical frameworks, this research model provides clear theoretical support for empirical testing and further analysis, substantially advancing our understanding of factors influencing PE teachers’ job engagement.

Chapter summary

In summary, based on an extensive literature review and theoretical analysis, this chapter delineates the conceptual definitions and research evidence for work-family facilitation, psychological resilience, job satisfaction, and work engagement. Four primary theoretical frameworks underlie this study: Ecological systems theory, spillover theory, social exchange theory, and two-factor theory. Grounded in these foundations, nine hypotheses are posited: (1) Work-family facilitation significantly and directly affects PE teachers’ work engagement; (2) work-family facilitation significantly affects PE teachers’ psychological resilience; (3) Psychological resilience significantly affects work engagement among PE teachers; (4) Psychological resilience serves as an independent mediator between work-family facilitation and work engagement; (5) Work-family facilitation significantly affects PE teachers’ job satisfaction; (6) Job satisfaction significantly affects work engagement among PE teachers; (7) Job satisfaction serves as an independent mediator between work-family facilitation and work engagement; (8) Psychological resilience significantly affects PE teachers’ job satisfaction; and (9) Psychological resilience and job satisfaction together form a chain mediator between work-family facilitation and work engagement among PE teachers.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Research subjects

A convenience sampling method was employed for this study. Considering that Shandong, Jiangsu, and Guangdong are among the leading provinces in China in terms of sports development and rank within the top ten in population size, PE teachers from universities, secondary schools, and primary schools in these provinces were surveyed and analyzed.

Questionnaire design

The questionnaire used in this study was designed based on mature and widely recognized scales to ensure reliability and validity. Each variable was measured using existing validated scales from prior research, with necessary modifications to fit the context of PE teachers. The sources and justifications for the selected scales are as follows:

Work-family facilitation: Adapted from the scale developed by Carlson et al[31], which measures both work-to-family enrichment and family-to-work enrichment. This scale has been widely applied in work-family interface studies and has demonstrated high construct validity and reliability.

Psychological resilience: Measured using Connor and Davidson’s resilience scale[20], which assesses individuals’ ability to recover from stress and adversity. This scale has been extensively used in research on resilience in educational and occupational settings.

Job satisfaction: Assessed using a modified version of the Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire, which captures both intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction. This scale is well-suited for evaluating teacher satisfaction in school settings.

Work engagement: Measured using the UWES, a widely used scale to assess vigor, dedication, and absorption in work. This scale is frequently applied in educational research and is validated across diverse cultural contexts. To ensure cross-cultural adaptation, the original English scales were translated into Chinese following a back-translation procedure. A pilot study was conducted with 30 PE teachers to test the clarity, readability, and reliability of the questionnaire, resulting in minor wording refinements.

Survey procedure

The survey was conducted between January and March 2024. A stratified random sampling method was employed to ensure representative sample selection from primary, secondary, and high schools across multiple provinces in China. The survey was conducted in two phases: (1) Pilot study: A preliminary survey (n = 30) was conducted to test the questionnaire’s clarity and reliability. The results were used to refine ambiguous items and ensure the effectiveness of the final version; and (2) Formal survey: The finalized questionnaire was distributed through online platforms (e.g., Wenjuanxing, Sojump) and offline paper-based surveys, ensuring participation from a diverse range of PE teachers. Survey participants were informed that their responses would remain anonymous and confidential, and consent was obtained before participation.

Sample selection and data collection

Sample Selection Criteria: Participants were required to meet the following conditions: (1) Currently employed as a PE teacher in primary, secondary, or high schools; (2) Have at least one year of teaching experience; and (3) Voluntarily agree to participate in the study. The sample source includes schools selected based on regional diversity, including urban and rural schools across Eastern, Central, and Western China. The final dataset includes responses from 500 PE teachers. After data collection, responses were filtered based on the following validity criteria: (1) Eliminating responses with excessive missing values (> 10%); (2) Removing cases where participants answered all items identically, indicating response bias; and (3) Conducting a Mahalanobis distance test to detect outliers. After these validity checks, 462 valid responses (92.4%) were retained for analysis.

Ensuring data quality and reliability

To enhance data authenticity and accuracy, several quality control measures were implemented: (1) Anonymity and confidentiality: Participants were assured that their responses would be kept confidential to encourage honest reporting; (2) Reverse-coded items: Included in the questionnaire to identify random or inattentive responses; (3) Harman’s single factor test: Conducted to assess common method bias. The first factor accounted for less than 40% of the variance, indicating that common method bias is not a major concern; and (4) Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability tests: Used to assess scale reliability, with all variables showing α > 0.80, indicating high internal consistency.

Compared with prior studies, this research introduces several methodological enhancements to improve measurement precision and contextual relevance. First, all selected instruments were not only psychometrically validated but also contextually adapted to reflect the unique occupational and cultural characteristics of PE teachers in China, a population often overlooked in work-family facilitation research. Second, a rigorous back-translation protocol was applied, and a pilot test was conducted with frontline PE teachers to ensure the linguistic and conceptual equivalence of the translated scales. Third, the study integrated four established theoretical frameworks - ecological systems theory, spillover theory, social exchange theory, and two-factor theory - into a unified measurement model, offering a novel and comprehensive analytical perspective. These methodological refinements enhance the reliability, ecological validity, and theoretical rigor of the study, thereby advancing current research in this field.

Literature review method

Relevant literature was collected through academic platforms such as CNKI, Wanfang, and VIP using keywords such as “PE teachers”, “work-family facilitation”, “psychological resilience”, “job satisfaction” and “job engagement”. This process involved reviewing existing research to define the concepts and measurement dimensions of these variables and to identify applicable theoretical foundations. This literature review provided essential data support and theoretical insights for understanding the general state of work-family facilitation, psychological resilience, job satisfaction, and job engagement among PE teachers, serving as a basis for this study.

Questionnaire survey method

Data collection was conducted using the following established scales: The Work-Family Facilitation Scale adapted by Tang et al[32], the Psychological Resilience Scale jointly revised by Yu and Zhang[38], the teacher job satisfaction scale developed by Xu and Zhao[45], and the UWES adapted by Zhang and Gan[51]. These instruments were utilized to gather data from PE teachers.

A convenience sampling method was employed to distribute questionnaires to PE teachers from primary, secondary, and higher education institutions in Shandong and Jiangsu provinces, which are recognized as two major sports powerhouses in China. A total of 470 questionnaires were collected, of which 34 were deemed invalid, resulting in 436 valid responses, with an effective response rate of 92.8%. The questionnaire was distributed both online and offline between January and March 2024. For the online component, the survey was disseminated through educational WeChat groups, teaching research groups, and institutional mailing lists targeting PE teachers in Shandong and Jiangsu provinces. Platforms such as Wenjuanxing (Sojump) were used to collect responses, and participation was entirely voluntary and anonymous. The data collection process lasted approximately six weeks.

Statistical analysis

SPSS 23.0 was used for reliability testing, descriptive statistics, common method bias testing, difference analysis, and correlation analysis. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted using AMOS 24.0. Additionally, the PROCESS 4.1 macro for SPSS 23.0 was employed to verify the chain mediation effect, providing scientific data support for the further development of this study.

RESULTS

Reliability and validity tests

This study utilized SPSS 23.0 to conduct reliability analysis on the work-family facilitation scale, psychological resilience scale, teacher job satisfaction scale, and UWES. Generally, a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient below 0.6 indicates that the scale requires revision; values between 0.6 and 0.7 suggest acceptable reliability; values between 0.7 and 0.8 indicate good reliability; and values above 0.8 reflect excellent reliability. According to the reliability analysis results presented in Table 1, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for all four scales - the work-family facilitation scale, psychological resilience scale, teacher job satisfaction scale, and UWES - exceeded 0.9, demonstrating high reliability for each scale used in the study. Typically, a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin value greater than 0.6 indicates that a scale has acceptable validity. The validity analysis of the work-family facilitation scale, psychological resilience scale, teacher job satisfaction scale, and UWES for PE teachers revealed that the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin values for each scale were above 0.9, with a significance level of 0.000. These results demonstrate that the validity of the work-family facilitation scale, psychological resilience scale, teacher job satisfaction scale, and UWES is excellent for use in this study (Table 2).

Table 1 Reliability analysis statistics.

Scale	Cronbach’s alpha	n
Work-family facilitation	0.977	14
Psychological resilience	0.979	25
Job satisfaction	0.962	10
Job engagement	0.975	15

Table 2 Results of Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin and Bartlett’s test.

Scale	Items		Value
Work-family facilitation scale	KMO measure of sampling adequacy		0.953
	Bartlett’s test of sphericity	Approximate χ2	8404.133
		Degrees of freedom	91
		Significance	0.000
Job satisfaction scale	KMO measure of sampling adequacy		0.930
	Bartlett’s test of sphericity	Approximate χ2	4955.999
		Degrees of freedom	45
		Significance	0.000
Psychological resilience	KMO measure of sampling adequacy		0.963
	Bartlett’s test of sphericity	Approximate χ2	13559.341
		Degrees of freedom	300
		Significance	0.000
Job engagement scale	KMO measure of sampling adequacy		0.958
	Bartlett’s test of sphericity	Approximate χ2	8367.883
		Degrees of freedom	105
		Significance	0.000

KMO: Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin.

Descriptive analysis of basic information

Table 3 presents the demographic information of PE teachers included in the study. Briefly, the study included 238 male PE teachers, accounting for 54.6%, of respondents and 198 female PE teachers, accounting for 45.4% of respondents. This indicates that male PE teachers are the majority within the surveyed sample. Additionally, the number of surveyed participants closely matches the relative percentage of male vs female PE teachers in China, reinforcing that male PE teachers remain predominant. In terms of educational qualifications, 108 PE teachers (24.8%) held a bachelor’s degree, 231 (53.0%) held a master’s degree, and 97 (22.2%) held a doctoral degree. This demonstrates that within the surveyed sample, most PE teachers held a master’s degree, followed by those with a bachelor’s degree (Table 3). From the perspective of teaching experience, 77 surveyed PE teachers (17.7%) had less than 5 years of teaching experience; 72 teachers (16.5%) had 5 to 10 years of experience; 102 teachers (23.4%) had 11 to 20 years of experience; and 185 teachers (42.4%) had over 20 years of experience. This indicates that within the surveyed sample, most PE teachers had over 20 years of experience, followed by those with 11 to 20 years of experience, while the smallest group consisted of those with 5 to 10 years of experience.

Table 3 Demographic Information of physical education teachers.

CategoryValue		Frequency	Percentage	Valid percentage	Cumulative percentage
Gender	Male	238	54.6	54.6	54.6
	Female	198	45.4	45.4	100.0
Education	Bachelor	108	24.8	24.8	24.8
	Master	231	53.0	53.0	77.8
	Doctoral	97	22.2	22.2	100.0
Years of teaching experience	< 5 years	77	17.7	17.7	17.7
	5-10 years	72	16.5	16.5	34.2
	11-20 years	102	23.4	23.4	57.6
	> 20 years	185	42.4	42.4	100.0

Common method bias testing

Given that self-reported questionnaires were used and all data were derived from the self-reports of PE teachers, we employed measures such as anonymity to mitigate the risk of common method bias. Harman’s single-factor test was conducted for further validation. Principal component analysis identified seven factors with eigenvalues greater than 1, and the first factor explained 33.56% of the variance, which is below the critical threshold of 40%. This result indicates that common method bias was not present.

Gender-based difference analysis of variables

The analysis of gender-based differences in the variables of work-family facilitation, psychological resilience, job satisfaction, and job engagement among PE teachers did not identify any significant differences between male and female teachers. However, mean scores indicated that female PE teachers scored slightly higher in work-family facilitation, psychological resilience, job satisfaction, and job engagement compared to their male counterparts. Additionally, the scores for both genders were above the theoretical median, suggesting that the levels of work-family facilitation, psychological resilience, job satisfaction, and job engagement among PE teachers were generally good. Detailed results are presented in Table 4.

Table 4 Gender-based difference analysis of variables.

Variable	Gender	mean ± SD	F value	Post-hoc comparison
Work-family facilitation	Male	4.21 ± 0.80	0.264	No significance
	Female	4.27 ± 0.90
Job satisfaction	Male	3.87 ± 0.85	2.791	No significance
	Female	4.00 ± 0.97
Psychological resilience	Male	3.89 ± 0.75	0.054	No significance
	Female	3.95 ± 0.78
Job engagement	Male	5.06 ± 1.13	7.673	No significance
	Female	5.28 ± 1.37

Educational level-based difference analysis of variables

The analysis of differences in work-family facilitation, psychological resilience, job satisfaction, and job engagement among PE teachers based on their educational background revealed that there were not any significant differences in work-family facilitation and psychological resilience across educational levels. However, the mean scores indicated that PE teachers with a master’s degree scored the highest in work-family facilitation and psychological resilience. Additionally, scores for work-family facilitation and psychological resilience across all educational levels were above the theoretical median, suggesting that these aspects are generally in a good state among PE teachers.

Furthermore, significant differences were observed in job satisfaction based on education level. Post-hoc comparisons indicated that job satisfaction scores for PE teachers with a master’s degree were significantly higher than those with a doctoral degree. This may be attributed to the fact that PE teachers with a doctoral degree are typically employed in higher education institutions, whereas those with a master’s degree are more often employed in primary and secondary schools. In primary and secondary schools, a master’s degree is considered relatively advanced, conferring higher social status, less research pressure, recognition from school leadership, and relatively favorable salary and benefits, all contributing to psychological fulfillment.

Additionally, PE teachers with a master’s degree working in higher education institutions often have longer careers or are former athletes, and despite their educational limitations, their positions as university teachers bring a sense of psychological fulfillment. Older PE teachers with a master’s degree tend to have more years of service and significant contributions to the school’s educational mission, earning them respect from leaders and colleagues, which enhances job satisfaction. Conversely, university PE teachers’ salaries are not significantly higher than those in primary and secondary schools, and PE teachers with doctoral degrees often experience a sense of disillusionment due to the mismatch between years of academic pursuit and actual salary levels. Additionally, doctoral PE teachers face heavier research responsibilities, contributing to lower job satisfaction compared to their counterparts with a master’s degree (Table 5).

Table 5 Educational level-based difference analysis of variables.

Educational level Value		mean ± SD	F value	Post-hoc comparison
Work-family facilitation	Bachelor	4.26 ± 0.81	2.846	No significance
	Master	4.30 ± 0.81
	Doctoral	4.06 ± 0.94
Psychological resilience	Bachelor	3.93 ± 0.76	2.403	No significance
	Master	3.97 ± 0.75
	Doctoral	3.77 ± 0.79
Job satisfaction	Bachelor	3.95 ± 0.85	6.200a	Master > doctoral
	Master	4.03 ± 0.89
	Doctoral	3.65 ± 0.97
Job engagement	Bachelor	5.16 ± 1.30	10.090b	Bachelor > doctoral, master > doctoral
	Master	5.36 ± 1.19
	Doctoral	4.69 ± 1.19

^aP < 0.01.

^bP < 0.001.

Significant differences were also found in job engagement among PE teachers based on educational levels. The analysis revealed that PE teachers with a bachelor’s degree exhibited significantly higher job engagement compared to those with a doctoral degree. This may be because PE teachers with a bachelor’s degree often teach at primary and secondary schools, where they must conduct classes and meet the requirements for professional titles. The teaching workload at this level is substantial, and because teachers with only a bachelor’s degree generally have weaker research capabilities, they need to dedicate more time and effort to improve their research skills, advance in their professional titles, and increase their income and status. Consequently, PE teachers with a bachelor’s degree show higher levels of job engagement compared to those with a doctoral degree.

Additionally, PE teachers with a master’s degree demonstrated significantly higher job engagement compared to those with a doctoral degree. This could be because master’s-level PE teachers at primary and secondary schools not only write papers and pursue professional title evaluations but also handle more sports classes than their doctoral counterparts. The combined workload and research activities require more time and effort from master’s-level teachers than from those with doctoral degrees. Furthermore, PE teachers with a master’s degree teaching at universities have similar teaching loads to those with doctoral degrees but must still conduct research and strive for professional title evaluations. Given their relatively lower research capabilities compared to doctoral-level teachers, master’s-level PE teachers need to invest additional time and effort to enhance their academic research proficiency. Table 5 outlines the significant differences in job engagement among PE teachers across different educational levels.

Difference analysis of variables by years of teaching experience

We next analyzed work-family facilitation, psychological resilience, job satisfaction, and job engagement among PE teachers based on years of teaching experience. We found significant differences in work-family facilitation, job satisfaction, and job engagement, while differences in psychological resilience were not significantly different (Table 6). We identified significant differences in work-family facilitation based on teaching experience. PE teachers with less than 5 years of experience scored lower than those with over 20 years. Teachers with 5-10 years of experience scored lower than both the 11-20 year group and the 20+ year group. Overall, PE teachers with more than 20 years of experience reported the highest levels of work-family facilitation. This may be due to the fact that PE teachers with over 20 years of experience have developed extensive professional expertise, allowing them to more effectively transfer resources and positive experiences between their work and home lives. Additionally, there is an inherent link between salary and years of experience; PE teachers with over 20 years of experience generally earn higher salaries than those with less than 5 years, which helps support household expenses, fostering positive emotions and interactions at home. Conversely, teachers with less than 5 years of experience are new to the workforce and may struggle due to unfamiliarity with their work environment and the demands of establishing their households, compounded by potentially lower salaries, leading to higher financial stress and hindering the positive transfer of benefits between work and family.

Table 6 Difference analysis of variables by years of teaching experience.

Years of Value experience		mean ± SD	F value	Post-hoc comparison
Work-family facilitation	< 5 years	3.98 ± 0.93	12.463b	(< 5 years) < (> 20 years), (5-10 years) < (11-20 years), (5-10 years) < (> 20 years)
	5-10 years	3.86 ± 0.94
	11-20 years	4.31 ± 0.72
	> 20 years	4.46 ± 0.76
Psychological resilience	< 5 years	3.7216 ± 0.84	2.837a	No significance
	5-10 years	3.8456 ± 0.65
	11-20 years	3.9647 ± 0.72
	> 20 years	4.0022 ± 0.78
Job satisfaction	< 5 years	3.499 ± 1.03	19.076b	(< 5 years) < (11-20 years), (< 5 years) < (> 20 years), (5-10 years) < (11-20 years), (5-10 years) < (> 20 years)
	5-10 years	3.543 ± 0.89
	11-20 years	3.977 ± 0.87
	> 20 years	4.230 ± 0.75
Job engagement	< 5 years	4.52 ± 1.17	12.418b	(< 5 years) < (11-20 years), (< 5 years) < (> 20 years)
	5-10 years	5.04 ± 1.13
	11-20 years	5.13 ± 1.32
	> 20 years	5.49 ± 1.16

^aP < 0.01.

^bP < 0.001.

PE teachers with 5 to 10 years of experience often have young children, which increases family expenses and places additional demands on their time and energy. During this career phase, teachers are typically in the process of advancing their careers, which requires considerable time and effort, making them more susceptible to conflicts between work and family domains, resulting in negative emotions that hinder the positive transfer of benefits. For PE teachers with 11 to 20 years of experience, their children are usually of school age, which requires less time, energy, and financial investment compared to younger children. These teachers typically earn higher salaries, providing better support for household expenses and fostering positive interactions with family members, which can be carried over into their work to enhance the positive transfer of benefits between home and work. Consequently, PE teachers with 11 to 20 years of experience scored significantly higher in work-family facilitation than those with 5 to 10 years of experience. PE teachers with over 20 years of experience generally have grown children, reducing the time and attention needed at home. At this stage, their extensive work experience and better salaries enable them to more effectively handle challenges in both work and life, facilitating positive emotions and benefits in both domains and the mutual transfer of these benefits. Therefore, PE teachers with over 20 years of experience scored significantly higher in work-family facilitation compared to those with 5 to 10 years of experience.

We observed significant differences in job satisfaction among PE teachers based on years of teaching experience. Teachers with less than 5 years of experience reported lower job satisfaction than those with 10-20 years and over 20 years of experience, Similarly, teachers with 5-10 years of experience scored lower than those with 10-20 years and over 20 years. Overall, job satisfaction was significantly lower among teachers with less than 5 years of experience compared to their more experienced counterparts. This may be because teachers with less than 5 years of experience are often in the early stages of establishing a household, dealing with financial pressures such as buying a house or car, and raising young children, which incurs significant expenses. These teachers also typically have lower salaries due to their early career stage, limited familiarity with their work environment, and lack of experience, making it difficult to effectively handle work challenges.

In contrast, PE teachers with 10-20 years or over 20 years of experience generally have older children and do not need to dedicate as much time and energy to family care. This allows them to focus more on their work, reducing conflicts between work and family and the negative emotions that arise from work-family imbalances. These teachers have substantial work experience and practical knowledge, enabling them to more effectively manage challenges and negative emotions. Additionally, teachers in these age groups often have higher salaries, which helps alleviate financial stress and enhances their professional standing within the school. They are more likely to gain respect from school leaders and younger colleagues, further contributing to higher job satisfaction. Therefore, job satisfaction scores for teachers with less than 5 years of experience were significantly lower than those for teachers with 10-20 years and over 20 years of experience.

PE teachers with 5-10 years of experience had lower job satisfaction compared to those with 10-20 years and over 20 years of experience. This could be attributed to the fact that teachers in this range often have young children, which requires significant financial, time, and energy investments. Balancing work and family responsibilities can lead to unresolved work issues and negative emotions, hindering a positive approach to work. Conversely, if more time and energy are devoted to work, it may result in insufficient family care, leading to family conflicts and dissatisfaction that affect their work attitude and motivation. PE teachers with 10-20 years and over 20 years of experience tend to have higher salaries, more respect from leadership and younger colleagues, and extensive experience that allows them to more efficiently resolve work issues, reducing their workload and fostering positive emotions. This leads to higher job satisfaction scores for teachers with 10-20 years and over 20 years of experience compared to those with 5-10 years.

Significant differences in job engagement among PE teachers were also observed, with teachers with less than 5 years of experience scoring lower than those with 10-20 years and over 20 years. This could be because PE teachers with less than 5 years of experience are in a stage when work-family conflicts are prevalent, as they are often busy establishing their families or managing household responsibilities, leaving limited time and energy to dedicate to their work. On the other hand, PE teachers with 10-20 years and over 20 years of experience usually have older children and fewer household responsibilities, allowing them to invest more time and energy in their work. Additionally, these teachers may need to dedicate more time to learning new technologies and adapting to modern teaching methods, given the rapid advancements in technology. Younger teachers can adapt more quickly to new trends and do not need to spend as much time learning. Consequently, job engagement scores for teachers with 10-20 years and over 20 years of experience were significantly higher than those for teachers with less than 5 years of experience.

Correlation analysis among variables for PE teachers

As shown in Table 7, the correlation analysis among the variables for PE teachers identified significant positive correlations between each pair of variables: Work-family facilitation, psychological resilience, job satisfaction, and job engagement (r = 0.323-0.705, P < 0.001). These correlation results provide strong support for the hypothesis discussed in the following sections. Specifically, the correlation coefficient between work-family facilitation and work engagement (r = 0.507) suggests a moderate positive relationship, implying that higher levels of perceived facilitation between work and family domains are associated with greater enthusiasm and dedication in professional activities. These findings provide preliminary support for the hypothesized positive interplay among the core constructs and justify the subsequent regression and mediation analyses.

Table 7 Correlation analysis among variables for physical education teachers.

Variable	Measurement	Work-family facilitation	Psychological resilience	Job satisfaction	Job engagement
Work-family facilitation	Pearson correlation	1	0.323a	0.693a	0.507a
	Sig (two-tailed)		0.000	0.000	0.000
	n	436	436	436	436
Psychological resilience	Pearson correlation	0.323a	1	0.416a	0.705a
	Sig (two-tailed)	0.000		0.000	0.000
	n	436	436	436	436
Job satisfaction	Pearson correlation	0.693a	0.416a	1	0.672a
	Sig (two-tailed)	0.000	0.000		0.000
	n	436	436	436	436
Job engagement	Pearson correlation	0.507a	0.705a	0.672a	1
	Sig (two-tailed)	0.000	0.000	0.000
	n	436	436	436	436

^aP < 0.001.

Empirical verification and analysis

Based on the correlation analysis results, the mediating effects of psychological resilience and job satisfaction can be further examined. We constructed a model with work-family facilitation among PE teachers as the independent variable, psychological resilience and job satisfaction as mediating variables, and job engagement as the dependent variable. The mediation effect was tested using the PROCESS 4.1 macro for SPSS 23.0, applying model 6 and controlling for gender, educational background, and years of teaching experience. As shown in Table 8, after controlling for gender, educational background, and years of teaching experience, the total effect of work-family facilitation on job engagement was significant (β = 0.4674, P < 0.001). However, the direct effect was not significant (β = 0.0445, P > 0.05). Work-family facilitation significantly and positively predicted psychological resilience (β = 0.3086, P < 0.001), and psychological resilience significantly positively predicted job engagement (β = 0.5114, P < 0.001). This indicates that psychological resilience fully mediates the relationship between work-family facilitation and job engagement among PE teachers. Additionally, work-family facilitation significantly positively predicted job satisfaction (β = 0.5867, P < 0.001), and job satisfaction significantly positively predicted job engagement (β = 0.4077, P < 0.001). This demonstrates that job satisfaction also fully mediates the relationship between work-family facilitation and job engagement among PE teachers. Moreover, psychological resilience significantly positively predicted job satisfaction (β = 0.2048, P < 0.001). Thus, together, psychological resilience and job satisfaction form a chain mediating effect between work-family facilitation and job engagement among PE teachers.

Table 8 Regression analysis among variables for physical education teachers.

Regression equation, outcome variable	Regression equation, predictor variable	Equation fit index, R	Equation fit index, R2	Equation fit index, F	Coefficient, β	Significance, t
Psychological resilience		0.3298	0.1088	50.6171
	Gender				0.0189	0.4071
	Education				-0.0333	-0.7091
	Years of experience				0.0441	0.8930
	Work-family facilitation				0.3086	6.5572b
Job satisfaction		0.7373	0.5436	102.4387
	Gender				0.0083	0.2501
	Education				-0.0091	-0.2689
	Years of experience				0.1512	4.2673b
	Work-family facilitation				0.5867	16.5925b
	Psychological resilience				0.2048	5.9351b
Job engagement		0.8219	0.6755	148.8119
	Gender				0.0308	1.0954
	Education				-0.0273	-0.9594
	Years of experience				0.0457	1.4957
	Work-family facilitation				0.0445	1.1651
	Psychological resilience				0.5114	16.8757b
	Job satisfaction				0.4077	10.0145b
Job engagement		0.5331	0.2842	42.7721
	Gender				0.0454	1.0913
	Education				-0.0508	-1.2064
	Years of experience				0.1336	3.0164a
	Work-family facilitation				0.4674	11.0803b

^aP < 0.01.

^bP < 0.001.

Regression analysis (Table 8) further validate the hypothesized relationships among variables. Work-family facilitation had a significant positive effect on psychological resilience (β = 0.5461, P < 0.001), job satisfaction (β = 0.5867, P < 0.001), and work engagement (β = 0.3204, P < 0.001). These coefficients indicate that improvements in perceived work-family facilitation correspond to substantial increases in psychological resilience, job satisfaction, and work engagement. For instance, a one-unit increase in work-family facilitation is associated with a 0.5867-unit increase in job satisfaction, underscoring the critical role of cross-domain resource enrichment in enhancing teachers’ effective and motivational states. Additionally, psychological resilience significantly predicted work engagement (β = 0.5114, P < 0.001), demonstrating its function as a personal strength that enables teachers to sustain vigor and dedication despite occupational stressors.

According to the chain mediation effect results (Table 9), psychological resilience and job satisfaction have significant mediating effects between work-family facilitation and job engagement among PE teachers, with a standardized total indirect effect value of 0.6232, accounting for 100% of the total effect. Specifically, the mediation effect between work-family facilitation and job engagement among PE teachers comprises three pathways: Work-family facilitation, psychological resilience, and job engagement as indirect pathway 1 (effect value = 0.2326); work-family facilitation, job satisfaction, and job engagement as indirect pathway 2 (effect value = 0.3526); and work-family facilitation, psychological resilience, job satisfaction, and job engagement as indirect pathway 3 (effect value = 0.0380). The percentages of the total effect contributed by these three indirect pathways are 37.32%, 56.58%, and 6.10%, respectively. As shown in Table 9, the Bootstrap 95% confidence intervals (CI) for all three indirect pathways do not include 0, indicating that indirect pathway 1, indirect pathway 2, and indirect pathway 3 are all significant. Pairwise comparisons of the indirect pathways reveal that the Bootstrap 95%CIs for Ind1-Ind3 (0.1086, 0.3164) and Ind2-Ind3 (0.2067, 0.4319) do not include 0, indicating significant differences; however, the Bootstrap 95%CI for Ind1-Ind2 (-0.2775, 0.0573) includes 0, indicating that there is no significant difference between indirect pathway 1 and indirect pathway 2.

Table 9 Chain mediation effect analysis.

Pathway	Effect value	Boot SE	Boot 95%CI	Relative mediation effect, %
Total Indirect Effect	0.6232	0.0825	0.4812, 0.8039	100
Ind1: Work-family facilitation, psychological resilience, and job engagement	0.2326	0.0594	0.1347, 0.3660	37.32
Ind2: Work-family facilitation, job satisfaction, and job engagement	0.3526	0.0555	0.2521, 0.4672	56.58
Ind3: Work-family facilitation, psychological resilience, job satisfaction, and job engagement	0.0380	0.0134	0.0170, 0.0697	6.10
Ind1-Ind2	-0.1200	0.0860	-0.2775, 0.0573
Ind1-Ind3	0.1946	0.0528	0.1086, 0.3164
Ind2-Ind3	0.3146	0.0581	0.2067, 0.4319

Bootstrap SE refers to the SE of the indirect effect estimated using the bias-corrected percentile Bootstrap method. Boot: Bootstrap.

The chain mediation analysis further revealed that both psychological resilience and job satisfaction served as significant mediators in the relationship between work-family facilitation and work engagement (Table 9). Notably, the indirect path via job satisfaction accounted for 56.58% of the total effect, indicating that job satisfaction plays a particularly prominent mediating role. These findings highlight a sequential mechanism wherein the positive impact of work-family facilitation on work engagement is partially transmitted through enhanced resilience and subsequently elevated job satisfaction. This mechanism provides empirical grounding for multi-level interventions targeting both personal and organizational resources.

DISCUSSION

The verification results regarding the role of psychological resilience and job satisfaction in the relationship between work-family facilitation and job engagement among PE teachers confirmed hypotheses 2 through hypotheses 9, while hypothesis 1 (work-family facilitation significantly positively predicts job engagement among PE teachers) was not supported. Below, we discuss these findings in comparison with existing literature, providing theoretical explanations and empirical support. Due to the cross-sectional nature of this study, the relationships identified represent association pathways rather than confirmed causal mechanisms.

Work-family facilitation and job engagement

Our study found that work-family facilitation does not directly predict job engagement among PE teachers, which contradicts findings by Wang et al[78] and Yang et al[79]. This discrepancy could be attributed to contextual differences in the professional environment of PE teachers. Unlike general employees, PE teachers often face institutional barriers, such as a lack of administrative support, outdated sports facilities, and safety concerns regarding student injuries. While work-family facilitation theoretically enhances work engagement by providing emotional and instrumental support, institutional constraints may hinder this direct effect. Prior study in occupational stress and engagement have suggested that job autonomy and organizational support are crucial moderators in this relationship[95]. Future research should explore whether these contextual factors moderate the association pathways between work-family facilitation and job engagement.

Compared to previous studies, the innovation of this study lies not only in verifying the complexity of the direct relationship between work-family facilitation and work engagement (no significant direct effect was found) but also in considering psychological resilience and job satisfaction as key mediating variables for the first time[96]. This provides a more refined analytical path for understanding the work-family facilitation effect among PE teachers and explains the potential indirect associations between variables that were previously overlooked. At the same time, this study did not directly measure potential variables such as school policy support, resource allocation, and leadership support. These unmeasured organizational contextual factors may interfere with the direct relationship between work-family facilitation and work engagement. Therefore, future research should consider incorporating qualitative interview data or quantitative measurement tools to examine the role of these institutional factors within the relational model.

Work-family facilitation and psychological resilience

Consistent with existing research, our study confirms that work-family facilitation significantly enhances psychological resilience among PE teachers[97,98]. This aligns with ecological systems theory, which posits that positive family and work environments serve as protective factors against stress. Work-family facilitation allows PE teachers to leverage professional skills at home (e.g., promoting health in family members), reinforcing their sense of self-efficacy and competence[99]. Moreover, social support from family members enhances psychological resilience, helping individuals better navigate work challenges. These findings highlight the importance of school and government policies that support a balanced work-family interface to enhance psychological resilience among PE teachers.

Psychological resilience and job engagement

Our findings corroborate previous studies demonstrating that psychological resilience positively predicts job engagement[100]. According to conservation of resources theory, individuals with higher psychological resilience can better manage stress and resource depletion, allowing them to remain engaged in their professional roles[101]. Resilient PE teachers are more likely to use adaptive coping strategies, such as exercise and mindfulness, to maintain emotional stability and sustain high levels of work engagement. Neurobiological evidence also suggests that resilience is associated with greater cognitive flexibility and stress regulation, which facilitates consistent work motivation and energy investment[102]. These findings further support resilience-enhancing interventions, such as teacher wellness programs and stress management training.

The mediating role of psychological resilience

Our results confirm that psychological resilience fully mediates the relationship between work-family facilitation and job engagement, consistent with previous research[103]. This suggests that work-family facilitation alone is not sufficient to enhance engagement; rather, it fosters psychological well-being, which in turn drives engagement. This supports the view that psychological resilience functions as a buffer against work-related adversity, potentially mediating the association pathways between work-family benefits and sustained work engagement. Schools and policymakers should consider targeted interventions that enhance resilience, such as mentorship programs, resilience training, and institutional support. Compared to previous studies, this study innovatively positions psychological resilience as a key, standalone mediating pathway in the relationship between work-family facilitation and work engagement[104]. This further highlights the significant moderating role of psychological resilience within the professional environment of PE teachers, providing theoretical support and specific strategic recommendations for future interventions targeting this group.

Work-family facilitation and job satisfaction

Consistent with previous findings, work-family facilitation positively predicts job satisfaction[105]. The social exchange theory explains that individuals who experience work-family facilitation from work to family develop a higher sense of organizational commitment and satisfaction[106]. In the case of PE teachers, recognition from family members and the ability to apply professional knowledge at home can enhance their sense of purpose and fulfillment. However, cultural differences may influence this relationship; in some educational contexts, PE teachers may face lower professional recognition, limiting the positive effects of work-family facilitation on job satisfaction[107]. Future research should explore cross-cultural variations in this dynamic. Moreover, the results of this study may also be influenced by cultural background differences. PE teachers from different regions and cultural contexts may exhibit significant variations in their understanding and expression of work-family roles, psychological resilience, and job satisfaction. For example, teachers in collectivist cultures may be more inclined to enhance their work engagement through family support, whereas those in individualist cultures may place greater emphasis on personal psychological resilience. Therefore, future research should be performed in cross-cultural settings to further clarify the moderating role of cultural factors.

Job satisfaction and job engagement

Our study supports the hypothesis that job satisfaction positively predicts job engagement, aligning with existing research[108]. According to Herzberg’s two-factor theory, job satisfaction is a key determinant of intrinsic motivation and engagement. When PE teachers perceive their work as meaningful and well-supported, they are more likely to invest time and effort into professional development. This is particularly relevant given recent educational reforms that emphasize holistic student development through sports, which may enhance the perceived value of PE[109]. Schools should thus prioritize supportive leadership and resource allocation to sustain PE teachers’ satisfaction and engagement.

Moreover, recent national policy reforms, particularly China’s “Double Reduction” policy, have had significant implications for teachers’ workload structure. While the policy primarily targets academic subjects, it has indirectly increased the importance of non-academic areas, including PE. In many schools, PE teachers are now required to take on more responsibilities related to student wellness, after-school activities, and interdisciplinary collaboration. These changes may influence both the perceived value of their work and their overall job satisfaction. Future research should further examine how policy-driven shifts affect PE teachers’ work engagement and psychological well-being to provide timely and context-sensitive recommendations.

The mediating role of job satisfaction

Our findings confirm that job satisfaction fully mediates the relationship between work-family facilitation and job engagement, reinforcing prior research[110]. This suggests that work-family facilitation indirectly enhances engagement through increased job satisfaction, emphasizing the critical role of workplace recognition and support. In educational settings where PE teachers face marginalization, fostering a culture of appreciation and institutional support may be essential for sustaining their engagement.

The chain mediating role of psychological resilience and job satisfaction

Our study further identifies a chain mediation effect of psychological resilience and job satisfaction between work-family facilitation and job engagement, supporting theoretical models in positive psychology and work-family research[111]. This suggests that resilient teachers are better equipped to derive job satisfaction from work-family facilitation, which in turn enhances their engagement. These findings highlight the cascading effects of resilience and job satisfaction on professional engagement, reinforcing the need for integrated well-being interventions. Compared to previous studies, the innovation of this study lies in the first proposal and verification of the chained mediating effect of psychological resilience and job satisfaction[112]. It reveals a complete indirect association pathway between work-family facilitation and work engagement. This finding not only addresses the limitations of existing research that examined psychological resilience or job satisfaction in isolation but also offers an integrated intervention perspective for comprehensively enhancing work engagement among PE teachers.

Discussion of pathway results

Our study also found that the mediating roles of psychological resilience and job satisfaction were equally important, with no significant difference between the two pathways. This indicates that both positive psychological attributes (resilience) and work-related satisfaction equally contribute to sustaining PE teachers’ engagement levels. These findings suggest that dual interventions, enhancing resilience and improving job satisfaction, may be the most effective strategy for sustaining long-term engagement in the teaching profession. Moreover, the cross-sectional design of this study does not rule out the possibility of reverse causality among the variables. For example, teachers with higher levels of work engagement may, in turn, enhance their psychological resilience. Therefore, future research is recommended to adopt longitudinal tracking or intervention-based experimental designs to better clarify the causal relationships between variables.

It is also important to note that this study was primarily conducted among PE teachers from the Eastern provinces of China, where educational policies, cultural values, and resource allocations may significantly differ from those in Central or Western regions. Such regional disparities could influence teachers’ perceptions of work-family balance, psychological resilience, and job satisfaction, potentially limiting the generalizability of the findings. Moreover, cultural factors may shape how PE teachers experience role identity and institutional support. For instance, in more collectivist regions, the interplay between family support and professional dedication may be more pronounced. Future research should extend sampling to diverse provinces and explore cross-cultural or cross-regional comparisons to validate the robustness of the proposed model.

Research limitations

While this study provides valuable insights into the relationship between work-family facilitation and job engagement among PE teachers, certain limitations should be acknowledged. Recognizing these limitations not only ensures academic rigor but also provides a foundation for future research to address these gaps.

Sample representativeness and generalizability: This study was conducted using a sample of PE teachers from relatively developed provinces (Shandong, Jiangsu, Guangdong) in Eastern China. As such, the generalizability of the findings may be limited, particularly concerning PE teachers from Central, Western, or economically underdeveloped rural and remote regions. Differences in regional economic development, educational resources, and cultural factors could substantially influence PE teachers’ perceptions and experiences regarding work-family facilitation and job engagement. Moreover, the sample included a relatively higher proportion of male PE teachers (54.6%), which may reflect the demographic characteristics of PE teachers in China. The potential impact of this gender composition on the generalizability of findings remains uncertain, as male and female teachers might significantly differ in terms of work-family dynamics, psychological resilience, and job satisfaction. Additionally, variations in participants’ teaching experience (years of teaching) may also affect the observed relationships. Teachers with different lengths of service may exhibit distinct levels of resilience, satisfaction, and engagement. Thus, the distribution of teaching experience within the sample warrants further consideration in interpreting the results. To enhance the generalizability of findings, future research should deliberately expand the geographical scope of sampling to include PE teachers from diverse regions, especially Central and Western China, economically underdeveloped rural areas, and remote regions. Additionally, future studies should consider including PE teachers from different school contexts, such as vocational schools, special education schools, and culturally diverse settings, to explore whether and how these contextual factors influence the studied relationships. Such broader and more diverse sampling would significantly improve the external validity and applicability of the research findings.

Self-reported data bias: The study relied on self-reported questionnaire data, which is subject to biases such as social desirability and common method variance. Participants may have provided responses they deemed socially acceptable rather than fully reflecting their true perceptions. Future studies should incorporate multi-source data collection methods, such as peer evaluations, supervisor ratings, or observational data, to improve data reliability.

Cross-sectional design and causal inference: The use of a cross-sectional design limits the ability to infer causality among variables. Although structural equation modeling provides robust statistical evidence of relationships, it cannot establish a definitive causal direction. Future research should adopt longitudinal or experimental designs to track changes in work-family facilitation, psychological resilience, and job engagement over time.

Potential omitted variables: While this study considered psychological resilience and job satisfaction as mediators, other relevant factors, such as leadership support, organizational climate, and personal coping strategies, may also influence the relationship between work-family facilitation and job engagement. Future research should explore these potential moderators or alternative mediators to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms at play.

Measurement limitations: Although this study employed validated scales, cultural adaptations and contextual influences could have affected how participants interpreted certain survey questions. Future studies could refine measurement tools through qualitative research, such as interviews or focus groups, to ensure that the constructs are appropriately adapted to the PE teaching profession. One notable limitation of this study is the use of convenience sampling, which may affect the representativeness and generalizability of the findings. Although efforts were made to ensure regional diversity and include participants from different educational levels and school types, the sample may still be biased toward those who were more accessible or willing to respond. Future studies should adopt stratified or random sampling techniques to enhance sample representativeness. Additionally, expanding the survey across more provinces or using longitudinal designs could provide deeper insights into the causal mechanisms between work-family facilitation and work engagement.

CONCLUSION

This study makes significant theoretical advancements by expanding our understanding of work-family facilitation and its impact on job engagement among PE teachers. Specifically, it extends and supplements four theoretical perspectives. Ecosystem theory is reinforced by illustrating how work-family facilitation operates within the broader professional and social environments of PE teachers. The study highlights the ecological factors that shape their psychological resilience and job engagement, confirming that interactions between personal and professional domains are essential in shaping occupational experiences. Spillover theory is further developed through empirical evidence demonstrating the effect of work-family facilitation on psychological resilience and job satisfaction. While previous studies predominantly focus on work-to-family or family-to-work conflict, this study confirms that work-family facilitation is a crucial mechanism for improving work engagement among PE teachers. Social exchange theory identified psychological resilience and job satisfaction as key mediators that reinforce the reciprocal relationship between work and family benefits. Our findings suggest that PE teachers who experience strong work-family facilitation are more likely to reciprocate organizational support through increased job engagement. Two-factor theory is empirically validated in the educational setting by linking psychological resilience and job satisfaction to work engagement. The findings suggest that psychological resilience serves as a motivating factor, while job satisfaction operates as a hygiene factor in enhancing job engagement.

This study provides valuable practical insights that can inform teacher management, training programs, and policy development in the field of PE. Educational institutions should actively cultivate a supportive work environment for PE teachers. Schools must recognize the importance of work-family balance and provide targeted assistance, such as flexible work arrangements, improved sports facilities, and mental health resources, to mitigate occupational stress and enhance work engagement. Training and development initiatives should incorporate psychological resilience training for PE teachers. Programs should focus on stress management strategies, resilience-building exercises, and professional identity reinforcement to help teachers better cope with job-related challenges and maintain long-term job satisfaction. Education policymakers should introduce policies that formally acknowledge the significance of PE, ensuring that PE teachers receive equal professional development opportunities and institutional support as their counterparts in academic disciplines. Financial and non-financial incentives should also be considered to enhance job satisfaction and long-term retention.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We sincerely thank all the physical education teachers who participated in this study and generously contributed their valuable time and insights. We also appreciate the assistance provided by colleagues and students during data collection and analysis. Their dedication and collaboration were instrumental to the successful completion of this research.