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Impact of beverage temperature on consumer preferences for black coffee. Sci Rep 2022; 12:20621. [PMID: 36450773 PMCID: PMC9712614 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-23904-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We recently performed a systematic investigation of consumer preferences for black coffee versus key brewing parameters, including total dissolved solids, extraction yield, and brewing temperature (Cotter et al. in J Food Sci 86(1):194-205, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.15561 ). An experimental goal in that work was for participants to taste the coffee at a beverage temperature of 65 °C, but the large sample size of more than 3000 individual tastings, combined with natural variations in the brewing and cooling processes, meant that coffees were assessed over a normally distributed range of temperatures between 56 and 71 °C. Here we use those data to provide a more detailed analysis of the impact of beverage temperature on consumer acceptance of the coffee, with a key objective of identifying beverage temperatures at which no consumers assess the coffee either as too hot or too cold. Using a 5-point just-about-right (JAR) scale, we find that a majority of consumers (> 50%) assessed the temperature as JAR at all temperatures tested up to 70 °C. A substantial fraction of consumers, approximately 6-12%, assessed the coffee as too cold over the range 56-68 °C. Only above 70 °C did a majority of consumers assess the coffee as too hot and none assessed it as too cold, albeit with 40% still assessing it as JAR. Complementary analyses indicate that beverage temperature over this range had little impact on assessments of the adequacy of flavor intensity, acidity, and mouthfeel, but did correlate slightly with overall liking and purchase intent. Overall, the results suggest that temperatures over the range of 58-66 °C maximize consumer acceptance, and that 68-70 °C is the minimum temperature range at which no consumers will assess black coffee as too cold.
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Semple KE, Zhou C, Rojas OJ, Nkeuwa WN, Dai C. Moulded pulp fibers for disposable food packaging: A state-of-the-art review. Food Packag Shelf Life 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fpsl.2022.100908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Loiola BR, Scofano Neto F, Guedes ROC. Numerical evaluation of the duodenal mucosal resurfacing technique for the treatment of Type 2 diabetes. COMPUTER METHODS AND PROGRAMS IN BIOMEDICINE 2021; 211:106413. [PMID: 34587562 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmpb.2021.106413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUNDS AND OBJECTIVES This work presents a numerical analysis of the Duodenal Mucosal Resurfacing (DMR) technique, which is a relatively new treatment for Type 2 diabetes that has been already tested in human beings. In this innovative strategy, an endoscopic catheter is placed inside the duodenum thus serving as a guide to an ablation device. A circumferential ablation is then performed by using a balloon filled with a hot fluid with pre- and post-cooling stages that allows for a controlled thermal procedure. Clinical outcomes indicate that the damaged duodenal lining induces a better control of glycemic levels. Therefore, a numerical evaluation of the efficiency of this treatment is carried out by utilizing the bioheat transfer equation in the transient form. METHODS The finite volume method is used in the discretization of the energy equation and the results are verified by exploring the same mathematical model in a commercial finite-element package. The Arrhenius criterion for the evaluation of the thermally affected tissue is employed in this study. RESULTS A systematic analysis of the simulations is performed by investigating two scenarios: one in which the lifting of the mucosal duodenum layer is achieved and another one where the lifting strategy is not implemented. The role of the magnitude of the blood perfusion coefficient, tissue thermal conductivity, peak, pre- and post-cooling temperatures is thoroughly explored, especially in connection with the evaluation of the extent of the thermally affected region. CONCLUSIONS According to the simulations discussed in the present contribution, this treatment is capable of accurately targeting the cells in the mucosal layer without significantly affecting the outermost stratum of the organ if the lifting process is applied. However, for the case without lifting, the muscularis propria layer may reach temperatures above 42 °C during a short time interval and thus the treatment should be considered with caution by the physician.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruna R Loiola
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Military Institute of Engineering, IME, Praça General Tibúrcio, 80, Urca, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 22290-270, Brazil.
| | - Francesco Scofano Neto
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Military Institute of Engineering, IME, Praça General Tibúrcio, 80, Urca, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 22290-270, Brazil.
| | - Rodrigo O C Guedes
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Military Institute of Engineering, IME, Praça General Tibúrcio, 80, Urca, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 22290-270, Brazil.
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McNeil DS, Trenholm JAI. Establishing Safety Parameters for Orthopaedic Cast Saw Blade Usage. J Pediatr Orthop 2021; 41:e884-e888. [PMID: 34516468 DOI: 10.1097/bpo.0000000000001928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The incidence of injuries from cast saws during cast removal ranges from 0.12% to 4.3%. With 1 second or less of exposure time, a temperature of 65°C can cause partial thickness burns. Despite numerous studies that recommend avoiding the use of a dull blade, there is no objective measure of what defines dullness. METHODS Plaster and fiberglass casts were collected and measured after removal from patients in the clinic. A series of slabs were constructed based on these measurements. To simulate our emergency department setting, a Stryker 940 cast saw without an attached vacuum was used to split plaster slabs. A thermocouple was used to directly measure the 940-23 ion-nitride saw blade temperature after each use. To simulate our orthopaedic clinic setting, a Stryker 940 cast saw with an attached vacuum was used to split fiberglass and plaster slabs. Three blades were tested in each setting, bivalving 50 slabs each. RESULTS For the plaster slabs split without a vacuum, average blade temperature of the 3 blades reached 65°C on the 42nd cast. However, the individual blades exceeded 65°C on the 33rd, 31st, and 38th casts, respectively. For the fiberglass and plaster slabs split with a vacuum, average blade temperature reached a maximum of 57.5°C in the first 50 trials. Extrapolating from this data, the blade is predicted to exceed 65°C on the 104th cast. CONCLUSIONS When a Stryker 940 cast saw without vacuum is used to cut plaster casts, the ion-nitride blade should be changed frequently, at minimum after 60 casts have been split, or 30 casts have been bivalved. When a Stryker 940 cast saw with vacuum is used to remove fiberglass and plaster casts, the ion-nitride blade should be changed after removing 103 casts. A cast saw with an attached vacuum should be used whenever possible to minimize the risk of burning patients. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Determine how often a cast saw blade should be changed to minimize risk of burning patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel S McNeil
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre
- Aberdeen Hospital, New Glasgow, NS, Canada
| | - J Andrew I Trenholm
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre
- Dalhousie University, Halifax
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Giachetti RS, Hardyniec A. Characterization of the release of heated and pressurized water from a pressure cooker. Burns 2020; 47:1118-1128. [PMID: 33766431 DOI: 10.1016/j.burns.2020.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Recently, self-heating consumer pressure cookers have found reinvigorated use with consumers wanting faster, more convenient, and healthier cooking. With the increased popularity, injury reports have also increased. Hazards associated with dispersion from pressurized vessels, although qualitatively understood through elementary scientific principles, have not been experimentally characterized in the literature, nor has the human ability to respond to a sudden dispersion of contents been directly reviewed. This study examined the consequence of volume and pressure on the dispersion of hot water from a typical 6 quart pressure cooker contacting a clothed user. This study found that both pressure and volume level influence the dispersion of contents after lid opening as well as the lid departure speed. Results also indicate that the speed of both the departing lid and the dispersing liquid occurred quicker than a bystander, within arm's reach, can consciously react to avoid or to shield themselves from the hot contents. The results confirmed analytical analyses found in the literature that a single layer cotton shirt (e.g., a t-shirt) saturated with water is more likely to trap hot liquid, increasing the likelihood of a more severe burn in that area due to prolonged skin contact.
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Affiliation(s)
- R S Giachetti
- Exponent, Inc., 525 W. Monroe #1050, Chicago, IL, United States.
| | - A Hardyniec
- Exponent, Inc., 525 W. Monroe #1050, Chicago, IL, United States
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Liu A, Ocotl E, Karim A, Wolf JJ, Cox BL, Eliceiri KW, Gibson ALF. Modeling early thermal injury using an ex vivo human skin model of contact burns. Burns 2020; 47:611-620. [PMID: 33279338 DOI: 10.1016/j.burns.2020.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Early mechanisms underlying the progressive tissue death and the regenerative capability of burn wounds are understudied in human skin. A clinically relevant, reproducible model for human burn wound healing is needed to elucidate the early changes in the human burn wound environment. This study reports a reproducible contact burn model on human skin that explores the extent of tissue injury and healing over time, and defines the inter-individual variability in human skin to enable use in mechanistic studies on burn wound progression and healing. METHODS Using a customized burn device, contact burns of various depths were created on human skin by two operators and were evaluated for histologic depth by three raters to determine reproducibility. Early burn wound progression and wound healing were also evaluated histologically after the thermally injured human skin was cultured ex vivo for up to 14 days. RESULTS Burn depths were reproducibly generated on human skin in a temperature- or time-dependent manner. No significant difference in operator-created or rater-determined depth was observed within each patient sample. However, significant inter-individual variation was identified in burn depth in ten patient samples. Burn-injured ex vivo human skin placed into culture demonstrated differential progression of cell death and collagen denaturation for high and low temperature contact burns, while re-epithelialization was observed in superficial burn wounds over a period of 14 days. CONCLUSION This model represents an invaluable tool to evaluate the inter-individual variability in early burn wound progression and wound healing to complement current animal models and enhance the translation of preclinical research to improvements in patient care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiping Liu
- Department of Surgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Edgar Ocotl
- Department of Surgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Aos Karim
- Department of Surgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Josiah J Wolf
- Laboratory for Optical and Computational Instrumentation, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA; Medical Engineering Group, Morgridge Institute for Research, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Benjamin L Cox
- Laboratory for Optical and Computational Instrumentation, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA; Medical Engineering Group, Morgridge Institute for Research, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Kevin W Eliceiri
- Laboratory for Optical and Computational Instrumentation, Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA; Medical Engineering Group, Morgridge Institute for Research, Madison, WI, USA; Department of Medical Physics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Angela L F Gibson
- Department of Surgery, University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA.
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Serving Temperatures of Best-Selling Coffees in Two Segments of the Brazilian Food Service Industry Are "Very Hot". Foods 2020; 9:foods9081047. [PMID: 32756450 PMCID: PMC7466196 DOI: 10.3390/foods9081047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified the consumption of “very hot” beverages (temperature >65 °C) as “probably carcinogenic to humans”, but there is no information regarding the serving temperature of Brazil’s most consumed hot beverage—coffee. The serving temperatures of best-selling coffee beverages in 50 low-cost food service establishments (LCFS) and 50 coffee shops (CS) were studied. The bestsellers in the LCFS were dominated by 50 mL shots of sweetened black coffee served in disposable polystyrene (PS) cups from thermos flasks. In the CS, 50 mL shots of freshly brewed espresso served in porcelain cups were the dominant beverage. The serving temperatures of all beverages were on average 90% and 68% above 65 °C in the LCFS and CS, respectively (P95 and median value of measurements: 77 and 70 °C, LCFS; 75 and 69 °C, CS). Furthermore, the cooling periods of hot water systems (50 mL at 75 °C and 69 °C in porcelain cups; 50 mL at 77 °C and 70 °C in PS cups) to 65 °C were investigated. When median temperatures of the best-selling coffees are considered, consumers should allow a minimum cooling time before drinking of about 2 min at both LCFS and CS.
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Singer AJ, Zhou JW, Osman OB, Harris ZB, Khani ME, Baer E, Zhang N, McClain SA, Arbab MH. Comparison of comparable scald and contact burns in a porcine model: A preliminary report. Wound Repair Regen 2020; 28:789-796. [PMID: 32729128 DOI: 10.1111/wrr.12848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Whether the depth and healing of scalds and contact burns are similar is controversial. Due to water's greater heat capacity, we hypothesized that when exposed to similar temperatures and durations of exposure, burns caused by hot water would be deeper than those caused by contact with hot metal. Forty standardized burns were created in two anesthetized female domestic pigs using a brass bar or circulating heated water. In one pig, the temperature was kept constant (95°C) while the duration of exposure varied (5, 10, 15 seconds) In the second pig, the exposure time was kept constant (10 seconds) while the temperature of exposure varied (70°C, 80°C, 98°C). Periodic punch biopsies were taken to determine burn depth immediately after injury, percentage burns reepithelialized within 21 days, and depth of scar at 28 days. The analysis was performed using analysis of variance. When the temperature was held constant, duration of exposure (5, 10, and 15 seconds) was associated with scar depth (2.1 vs 3.8 vs 5.0 mm, respectively, P = 0.001) but not with burn depth (2.0 vs 2.2 vs 2.3 mm, respectively, P = 0.10). When exposure duration was held constant, temperature (70°C, 80°C, 98°C) was associated with scar depth (0.6 vs 1.7 vs 3.6, P < 0.001) but not with burn depth (1.2 vs 1.5 vs 1.7 mm, respectively, P = 0.21). Burn depths were greater for scald than contact burns although not significantly greater. After controlling for temperature, the difference in scar depth between scalds and contact burns was statistically significant (marginal means 3.0 for contact burns, 4.3 for scalds, P = 0.008). We conclude that burns created in swine with circulating hot water result in deeper scars than those created by contact with a brass bar when controlling for temperature and duration of exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam J Singer
- Departments of Emergency Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
| | - Juin W Zhou
- Department Biomedical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
| | - Omar B Osman
- Department Biomedical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
| | - Zachery B Harris
- Department Biomedical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
| | - Mahmoud E Khani
- Department Biomedical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
| | - Evyatar Baer
- Departments of Emergency Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
| | - Nigel Zhang
- Departments of Emergency Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
| | - Steve A McClain
- Departments of Emergency Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
| | - M Hassan Arbab
- Department Biomedical Engineering, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
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Lewis CJ, Wood F, Goodwin-Walters A. Iatrogenic Thermal Burns Secondary to Marine Sting Treatment. J Burn Care Res 2020; 41:878-881. [PMID: 32141503 DOI: 10.1093/jbcr/iraa042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Hot water immersion (HWI) therapy is an effective and validated treatment for a variety of marine stings. Unsupervised, however, it poses a significant risk of thermal injury. Herein, we describe our experience of iatrogenic thermal injury secondary to marine sting treatment. A 5-year retrospective review of all iatrogenic thermal burns secondary to marine stings referred to the State Adult Burn Service was conducted. Nine patients were identified, all sustaining stings to the feet from estuarine cobblerfish, stonefish, and stingrays. All patients continued unsupervised HWI at home and sustained thermal injury to their feet. The majority were treated conservatively with dressings and elevation. One patient required surgical debridement. While heat application is an effective treatment for marine stings, further patient education is required following discharge from point of care. We recommend that first-aid treatment guidelines be updated to reflect that patients are not recommended to continue scalding water immersion at home. However, if patients wish to continue HWI, water temperature should be checked manually with a thermometer or with a nonstung limb and limited to 30 minutes immersion, with 30-minute skin recovery time between.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fiona Wood
- State Adult Burn Service, Fiona Stanley Hospital, Perth, Western Australia
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Kostusiak M, Naik A, Lewis CJ, Allison KP. Establishing scald prevention measures in UK maternity units from takeaway drinks. Burns 2020; 46:1208-1211. [PMID: 31911073 DOI: 10.1016/j.burns.2019.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2019] [Revised: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 12/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIM To identify policies on the consumption of hot drinks by patients and visitors on all perinatal and postnatal wards in the United Kingdom, and to seek the opinions of members of the wider burns MDT as to whether standardised patient education or regulation of hot drinks around newborn babies is required. METHODS All maternity units with postnatal wards across the United Kingdom were surveyed to establish availability of hot drinks on site and whether these were permitted on postnatal wards around infants. An online questionnaire was distributed to members of the British Burn Association to ascertain opinions on hot drinks policies. RESULTS Hot takeaway drinks were permitted around newborn infants in 194 of surveyed postnatal wards and were only banned by two units. The online survey received 49 responses from different members of the British Burn Association. Thirty responders (61%) supported a takeaway hot drink ban, while those against the policy would alternatively encourage patient education, dedicated drinking areas and introduction of safety measures. CONCLUSIONS Almost every postnatal unit in the UK has access to hot drink retailers on site allowing parents and visitors to bring them into close contact with babies. With varying local regulations, this poses potentially serious consequences during feeding or carrying. We propose a standardised antenatal education be made available, together with standardised designated areas on wards for parents and visitors to consume hot drinks away from infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kostusiak
- Department of Plastic Surgery, James Cook University Hospital, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
| | - A Naik
- Department of Plastic Surgery, James Cook University Hospital, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
| | - C J Lewis
- Department of Plastic Surgery, James Cook University Hospital, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom.
| | - K P Allison
- Department of Plastic Surgery, James Cook University Hospital, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
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Andreozzi A, Iasiello M, Tucci C. An overview of mathematical models and modulated-heating protocols for thermal ablation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.aiht.2020.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Naik A, Lewis CJ, Allison KP. Temperature dissociation of liquids in reusable thermoplastic containers-An eco-friendly scald risk? Burns 2019; 45:1621-1624. [PMID: 31371231 DOI: 10.1016/j.burns.2019.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Revised: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 07/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Recent global concern regarding the impact of plastic waste on the environment has resulted in efforts to utilise reusable drink containers. Research is lacking regarding temperature dissociation of drinks in reusable thermoplastic cups. This study aimed to compare the cooling time of two common hot drinks sold at a UK retailer, in the three vessels they are sold; ceramic, disposable paper (with and without lid) and reusable thermoplastic cups (with and without lid). All temperatures were collated from 250 ml volumes of black Americano coffee or café latte in the three different containers. The cooling time was measured every sixty seconds using a standardised digital thermocouple thermometer until a threshold liquid temperature of 43 °C was reached. All experiments were performed in triplicate and temperatures converted to a dimensionless logarithmic scale prior to statistical analysis. Cooling time was significantly slower for lidded cups irrespective of material. Unlidded thermoplastic cups significantly slowed cooling times for both black Americano coffee and café latte compared to ceramic and unlidded disposable paper cups. The growing trend in reusable cups does not in itself pose an increased risk of scald injury. However, we consider that the potentially increased ambulatory behaviour associated with using a lidded rather than unlidded cup may increase scald risk. We propose that further consumer guidance should be disseminated regarding the use of any lidded takeaway container to prevent scalds in both adults and children.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Naik
- Department of Plastic Surgery, James Cook University Hospital, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
| | - C J Lewis
- Department of Plastic Surgery, James Cook University Hospital, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom.
| | - K P Allison
- Department of Plastic Surgery, James Cook University Hospital, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom
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Abraham J, Diller K. A Review of Hot Beverage Temperatures-Satisfying Consumer Preference and Safety. J Food Sci 2019; 84:2011-2014. [PMID: 31294834 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.14699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Hot beverages are served ubiquitously in the food-service industry as well as at residences and other venues. Coffee and tea beverages, in particular, are brewed at temperatures that are sufficiently high to cause immediate and serious risk for scald injuries. On the other hand, numerous research studies have been performed to identify the preferred consumption temperatures for hot beverages. The outcome of these mutually reinforcing studies is that the preferred drinking temperatures are significantly below the often-encountered brewing temperatures (∼200 °F). Consequently, there is great need to distinguish brewing temperatures from serving temperatures. Serving consumers beverages at very high temperatures is not only unnecessary (from a preference standpoint) but also unsafe. An appropriate range for service temperatures is (130 to 160 °F). PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Often times, hot beverages are served at temperatures near their brewing temperature; far hotter than preferred by consumers. This practice creates unnecessary risk to the consumer. A more rationale recommended range of service temperatures is 130 to 160 °F. This recommendation balances a range of consumer preferences and safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Abraham
- The Univ. of St. Thomas, School of Engineering, 2115 Summit Ave, St. Paul, MN, 55105-1079, USA
| | - Kenneth Diller
- The Univ. of Texas at Austin, Dept. of Biomedical Engineering, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
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Abraham JP, Stark J, Gorman J, Sparrow E, Minkowycz W. Tissue burns due to contact between a skin surface and highly conducting metallic media in the presence of inter-tissue boiling. Burns 2019; 45:369-378. [DOI: 10.1016/j.burns.2018.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Revised: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Modeling Skin Injury from Hot Rice Porridge Spills. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:ijerph15040808. [PMID: 29677134 PMCID: PMC5923850 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15040808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2018] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The present work analyzes skin burns from spills of hot rice and milk products. The traditional Norwegian rice porridge serves as an example. By testing spills on objects emulating an arm, it was concluded that spills were seldom thinner than 3 mm, and stayed in place due to the viscosity of the porridge for more than one minute. The Pennes bioheat equation was solved numerically for such spills, including heat conduction to the skin and convective heat losses from the porridge surface. Temperatures were analyzed in the porridge and skin layers, and the resulting skin injury was calculated based on the basal layer temperature. Parameters influencing burn severity, such as porridge layer thickness, porridge temperature, removal of the porridge and thermal effects of post scald tempered (15 °C) water cooling were analyzed. The spilled porridge resulted in a prolonged heat supply to the skin, and the skin injury developed significantly with time. The porridge temperature turned out to be the most important injury parameter. A 70 °C porridge temperature could develop superficial partial-thickness burns. Porridge temperatures at processing temperatures nearly instantly developed severe burns. It was demonstrated that prompt removal of the hot porridge significantly reduced the injury development. The general advice is to avoid serving porridge and similar products at temperatures above 65 °C and, if spilled on the skin, to remove it quickly. After such scald incidents, it is advised to cool the injured area by tempered water for a prolonged period to stimulate healing.
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Andrews CJ, Cuttle L. Comparing the reported burn conditions for different severity burns in porcine models: a systematic review. Int Wound J 2017; 14:1199-1212. [PMID: 28736990 PMCID: PMC7949960 DOI: 10.1111/iwj.12786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
There are many porcine burn models that create burns using different materials (e.g. metal, water) and different burn conditions (e.g. temperature and duration of exposure). This review aims to determine whether a pooled analysis of these studies can provide insight into the burn materials and conditions required to create burns of a specific severity. A systematic review of 42 porcine burn studies describing the depth of burn injury with histological evaluation is presented. Inclusion criteria included thermal burns, burns created with a novel method or material, histological evaluation within 7 days post-burn and method for depth of injury assessment specified. Conditions causing deep dermal scald burns compared to contact burns of equivalent severity were disparate, with lower temperatures and shorter durations reported for scald burns (83°C for 14 seconds) compared to contact burns (111°C for 23 seconds). A valuable archive of the different mechanisms and materials used for porcine burn models is presented to aid design and optimisation of future models. Significantly, this review demonstrates the effect of the mechanism of injury on burn severity and that caution is recommended when burn conditions established by porcine contact burn models are used by regulators to guide scald burn prevention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine J Andrews
- Centre for Children's Burns and Trauma ResearchThe University of Queensland, Centre for Children's Health ResearchSouth BrisbaneQLDAustralia
| | - Leila Cuttle
- Centre for Children's Burns and Trauma ResearchQueensland University of Technology, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation and Centre for Children's Health ResearchSouth BrisbaneQLDAustralia
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Modeling Skin Injury from Hot Spills on Clothing. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2017; 14:ijerph14111374. [PMID: 29137118 PMCID: PMC5708013 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph14111374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Revised: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The present work analyzes scald burns from hot beverages, such as coffee and tea, spilled on the lap, i.e., an incident that may occur in daily life. The Pennes bioheat equation is solved numerically for small spills wetting the clothing, i.e., the fabric prevents the spilled liquid from draining away. Temperatures are analyzed in the wetted fabric and the skin layers and the resulting skin injury is calculated based on the basal layer temperature. Parameters influencing burn severity, such as clothing thickness, liquid temperature, removal of fabric and thermal effects of post scald water cooling are analyzed. The fabric cools the water some but represents a threat since the entrapped water results in a prolonged heat supply. The liquid temperature turned out to be the most important injury parameter, where liquid temperature of about 80–85 °C seems to be a limit for developing superficial partial-thickness burns in the present minimum case, i.e., where the liquid just wets the fabric. Spilling water in excess of just wetting the fabric, more severe burns will develop at lower liquid temperatures due to the prolonged heat supply. Higher liquid temperatures will nearly instantly develop more severe burns. It is demonstrated that removal of the clothing within the first seconds after the spill may significantly reduce the scalding severity. The general advice is therefore to avoid excessive heating of beverages and, if the beverage is spilled, to quickly remove the wetted clothing. Prolonged tempered water cooling is advised to improve the healing processes.
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Andrews CJ, Kimble RM, Kempf M, Cuttle L. Evidence-based injury prediction data for the water temperature and duration of exposure for clinically relevant deep dermal scald injuries. Wound Repair Regen 2017; 25:792-804. [DOI: 10.1111/wrr.12577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 08/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christine J. Andrews
- Faculty of Medicine; Child Health Research Centre, Centre for Children's Burns and Trauma Research, The University of Queensland; South Brisbane QLD Australia
| | - Roy M. Kimble
- Children's Health Queensland, Pegg Leditschke Paediatric Burns Centre, Lady Cilento Children's Hospital; Centre for Children's Burns and Trauma Research, The University of Queensland; South Brisbane QLD Australia
| | - Margit Kempf
- Faculty of Medicine; Child Health Research Centre, Centre for Children's Burns and Trauma Research, The University of Queensland; South Brisbane QLD Australia
| | - Leila Cuttle
- Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation and Child Health Research Centre; Centre for Children's Burns and Trauma Research, Queensland University of Technology; South Brisbane QLD Australia
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19
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Log T. Modeling Burns for Pre-Cooled Skin Flame Exposure. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2017; 14:ijerph14091024. [PMID: 28880253 PMCID: PMC5615561 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph14091024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Revised: 09/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/06/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
On a television show, a pre-cooled bare-skinned person (TV host) passed through engulfing kerosene flames. The assumption was that a water film should protect him during 0.74 s flame exposure in an environment of 86 kW/m² heat flux. The TV host got light burn inflammation on the back, arms and legs. The present work studies skin temperatures and burn damage integral of such dangerous flame exposure. The skin temperature distribution during water spray pre-cooling, transport to the flames, flame exposure, transport to the water pool, and final water pool cooling is modelled numerically. Details of the temperature development of the skin layers are presented, as well as the associated damage integral. It is shown that 5 °C water spray applied for a 30 s period pre-cooled the skin sufficiently to prevent severe skin injury. Soot marks indicate that the water layer evaporated completely in some areas resulting in skin flame contact. This exposed dry skin directly to the flames contributing significantly to the damage integral. It is further analyzed how higher water temperature, shorter pre-cooling period or longer flame exposure influence the damage integral. It is evident that minor changes in conditions could lead to severe burns and that high heat flux levels at the end of the exposure period are especially dangerous. This flame stunt should never be repeated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torgrim Log
- Department of Engineering, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, 5528 Haugesund, Norway.
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20
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Ye H, De S. Thermal injury of skin and subcutaneous tissues: A review of experimental approaches and numerical models. Burns 2017; 43:909-932. [PMID: 27931765 PMCID: PMC5459687 DOI: 10.1016/j.burns.2016.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2016] [Revised: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Thermal injury to skin and subcutaneous tissue is common in both civilian and combat scenarios. Understanding the change in tissue morphologies and properties and the underlying mechanisms of thermal injury are of vital importance to clinical determination of the degree of burn and treatment approach. This review aims at summarizing the research involving experimental and numerical studies of skin and subcutaneous tissue subjected to thermal injury. The review consists of two parts. The first part deals with experimental studies including burn protocols and prevailing imaging approaches. The second part deals with existing numerical models for burns of tissue and related computational simulations. Based on this review, we conclude that though there is literature contributing to the knowledge of the pathology and pathogenesis of tissue burn, there is scant quantitative information regarding changes in tissue properties including mechanical, thermal, electrical and optical properties as a result of burns that are linked to altered tissue morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanglin Ye
- Center for Modeling, Simulation and Imaging in Medicine (CeMSIM), Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA
| | - Suvranu De
- Center for Modeling, Simulation and Imaging in Medicine (CeMSIM), Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA.
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21
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Plourde B, Vallez L, Nelson-Cheeseman B, Abraham J. Transcutaneous Recharge: A Comparison of Numerical Simulation toIn VivoExperiments. Neuromodulation 2017; 20:613-621. [DOI: 10.1111/ner.12627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Revised: 04/25/2017] [Accepted: 05/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Brian Plourde
- School of Engineering; University of St. Thomas; St. Paul MN, USA
| | - Lauren Vallez
- School of Engineering; University of St. Thomas; St. Paul MN, USA
| | | | - John Abraham
- School of Engineering; University of St. Thomas; St. Paul MN, USA
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22
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Martin NA, Falder S. A review of the evidence for threshold of burn injury. Burns 2017; 43:1624-1639. [PMID: 28536038 DOI: 10.1016/j.burns.2017.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Revised: 03/05/2017] [Accepted: 04/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Burn injury is common and depth is one measure of severity. Although the depth of burn injury is determined by many factors, the relationship between the temperature of the injurious agent and exposure duration, known as the time-temperature relationship, is widely accepted as one of the cornerstones of burn research. Moritz and Henriques first proposed this relationship in 1947 and their seminal work has been cited extensively. However, over the years, readers have misinterpreted their findings and incorporated misleading information about the time-temperature relationship into a wide range of industrial standards, burn prevention literature and medicolegal opinion. AIM The purpose of this paper is to present a critical review of the evidence that relates temperature and time to cell death and the depth of burn injury. These concepts are used by researchers, burn prevention strategists, burn care teams and child protection professionals involved in ascertaining how the mechanism of burning relates to the injury pattern and whether the injury is consistent with the history. REVIEW METHODS This review explores the robustness of the currently available evidence. The paper summarises the research from burn damage experimental work as well as bioheat transfer models and discusses the merits and limitations of these approaches. REVIEW FINDINGS There is broad agreement between in vitro and in vivo studies for superficial burns. There is clear evidence that the perception of pain in adult human skin occurs just above 43°C. When the basal layer of the epidermis reaches 44°C, burn injury occurs. For superficial dermal burns, the rate of tissue damage increases logarithmically with a linear increase in temperature. Beyond 70°C, rate of damage is so rapid that interpretation can be difficult. Depth of injury is also influenced by skin thickness, blood flow and cooling after injury. There is less clinical evidence for a time-temperature relationship for deep or subdermal burns. Bioheat transfer models are useful in research and becoming increasingly sophisticated but currently have limited practical use. Time-temperature relationships have not been established for burns in children's skin, although standards for domestic hot water suggest that the maximum temperature should be revised downward by 3-4°C to provide adequate burn protection for children. CONCLUSION Time-temperature relationships established for pain and superficial dermal burns in adult human skin have an extensive experimental modeling basis and reasonable clinical validation. However, time-temperature relationships for subdermal burns, full thickness burns and burn injury in children have limited clinical validation, being extrapolated from other data, and should be used with caution, particularly if presented during expert evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- N A Martin
- St. Andrews Centre for Burns and Plastic Surgery, Broomfield Hospital, Chelmsford, Essex CM1 7ET, UK.
| | - S Falder
- Department of Burns and Plastic Surgery, Alder Hey Children's NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool L12 2AP, UK.
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Bourdon RT, Nelson-Cheeseman BB, Abraham JP. Review of the initial treatment and avoidance of scald injuries. World J Dermatol 2017; 6:17-26. [DOI: 10.5314/wjd.v6.i2.17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2016] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Scald injuries, which describe burns to living tissue from hot liquids, are a very common injury that occur across geographical, social, economic, and national boundaries. Despite their ubiquitous nature, a complete understanding of the conditions which are required to cause scald burns is not yet available. In addition, clear guidance to medical practitioners is available through various guidelines however in actual situations, the extent of the burn is not fully known and this lack of knowledge complicates care. Here, a comprehensive review is made of the available knowledge of temperatures and scald durations which lead to skin-burn injuries. The range of volumes and liquid temperatures are typical of those found in heated consumer beverages. This review can help medical practitioners design initial treatment protocols and can be used by manufacturers of hot-liquid products to avoid the most severe burns. Next, within the context of this ability to quantify burn depths, a review of current burn treatment guidelines is given. Included in this review is a visual recognition of the extent of burns into the dermal layer as well as decision guidelines for selection of patients which would benefit from referral to a dedicated burn center. It is hoped that by bringing together both the quantified burn-depth information and current treatment guidelines, this review can be used as a resource for persons in the medical, manufacturing, beverage service, and other industries to reduce the human impact of scald injuries.
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Alexander RT, Fowler DR. Modeling the Distribution of Scald Type Burns in a Child. Acad Forensic Pathol 2016; 6:638-656. [PMID: 31239936 DOI: 10.23907/2016.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 10/01/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Splash or spill scald burns may be seen by medical examiners in the setting of intentional trauma or accidental injury. In order to model various scald burn scenarios, an 8-year-old subject dressed in white had colored water spilled or dropped onto her. The results were recorded by video and still photography. Five trials were performed and included: liquid in a cup thrown towards the anterior body surfaces; liquid in a cup thrown towards the posterior body surfaces; a cup of liquid spilled across a table into the lap of a seated subject; a saucepan pulled down onto the anterior torso; and a cup of liquid spilled onto the top of the head. In each of the spill and splash models described above, a large often confluent zone of staining at the site of initial liquid contact with the body was often accompanied by elongate runoff patterns following gravity; droplet staining was often noted on adjacent areas. When seated, an inverted U-shaped staining pattern was on the buttocks. Anticipation of the splash event in one trial resulted in the subject instinctively turning the anterior body away from the oncoming liquid. When presented with a scalded victim, modeling of the reported history may provide a pattern of staining that supports or refutes the explanation offered for the burn. A mobile and neurologically intact subject who can anticipate an incipient scald injury may move prior to and during contact with the liquid resulting in unique staining patterns on multiple surfaces of the body.
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25
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Andrews CJ, Kempf M, Kimble R, Cuttle L. Development of a Consistent and Reproducible Porcine Scald Burn Model. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0162888. [PMID: 27612153 PMCID: PMC5017633 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0162888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
There are very few porcine burn models that replicate scald injuries similar to those encountered by children. We have developed a robust porcine burn model capable of creating reproducible scald burns for a wide range of burn conditions. The study was conducted with juvenile Large White pigs, creating replicates of burn combinations; 50°C for 1, 2, 5 and 10 minutes and 60°C, 70°C, 80°C and 90°C for 5 seconds. Visual wound examination, biopsies and Laser Doppler Imaging were performed at 1, 24 hours and at 3 and 7 days post-burn. A consistent water temperature was maintained within the scald device for long durations (49.8 ± 0.1°C when set at 50°C). The macroscopic and histologic appearance was consistent between replicates of burn conditions. For 50°C water, 10 minute duration burns showed significantly deeper tissue injury than all shorter durations at 24 hours post-burn (p ≤ 0.0001), with damage seen to increase until day 3 post-burn. For 5 second duration burns, by day 7 post-burn the 80°C and 90°C scalds had damage detected significantly deeper in the tissue than the 70°C scalds (p ≤ 0.001). A reliable and safe model of porcine scald burn injury has been successfully developed. The novel apparatus with continually refreshed water improves consistency of scald creation for long exposure times. This model allows the pathophysiology of scald burn wound creation and progression to be examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine J. Andrews
- Centre for Children’s Burns and Trauma Research, The University of Queensland, Centre for Children’s Health Research, South Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Margit Kempf
- Centre for Children’s Burns and Trauma Research, The University of Queensland, Centre for Children’s Health Research, South Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Roy Kimble
- Centre for Children’s Burns and Trauma Research, The University of Queensland, Centre for Children’s Health Research, South Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Leila Cuttle
- Centre for Children’s Burns and Trauma Research, Queensland University of Technology, School of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation at Centre for Children's Health Research, South Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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