Harnessing postbiotics for liver health: Emerging perspectives

Table 1 Effects of postbiotics on various liver disorders

Ref.	Type of the study	Postbiotic involved	Mechanisms and outcomes
Inactivated bacteria
Depommier et al[29]	In vivo in mice	A. muciniphila	Increased energy expenditure, obesity
Depommier et al[30]	Clinical trial	A. muciniphila	Improves obesity with insulin resistance
Andresen et al[31]	Clinical trial	Bifidobacterium bifidum	Improves symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome
Shin et al[32]	In vivo: Male rats	B. longum SPM1207	Decreases total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol
Martorell et al[33]	In vivo: Caenorhabditis elegans. In vitro: Human colonic epithelial cells	B. longum CECT 7347	Alleviate gut barrier disruption by its anti-inflammatory properties
Nakamura et al[34]	In vivo: Male c57BL/6n mice	Lactobacillus amylovorus CP 1563	Treatment and prevention of dyslipidemia
Aiba et al[35]	In vitro	Lactobacillus johnsonii	Inhibits colonization of Helicobacter pylori
Miyauchi et al[36]	In vitro: Intestinal epithelial cells	L. rhamnosus OLL 2838	Intestinal barrier activity
Bacterial lysates
Jensen et al[37]	In vivo in mice	Methylcoccus capsulatus	Enhance glucose regulation and decrease body and liver fat, MASLD
Mack et al[38]	Clinical trial	Escherichia coli DSM 17252 and Enterococcus faecalis DSM 16440	Improves diarrhoea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome by ameliorating endotoxin translocation and indirectly prevents the gut-liver translocation
Osman et al[39]	In vivo: Male rats	L. paracasei	Reduced lipids and triglycerides accumulation and significant reduction in elevated liver enzymes
Wang et al[40]	In vivo: Male mice	L. rhamnosus GG	Alcoholic liver disease prevention
Compare et al[41]	Ex vivo: Organ culture model	Lactobacillus casei DG	Alleviate inflammatory effects in intestinal mucosa
Gao et al[8]	In vitro: Intestinal epithelial cells (Caco-2). In vivo: Mice	L. rhamnosus GG	Ameliorates intestinal barrier dysfunction and protects intestinal epithelium thereby preventing translocation to liver
Mi et al[42]	In vitro: RAW264.7 cells. In vivo: Male mice. Ex vivo: Mouse splenocytes	Bacillus velezensis Kh2-2	Stimulate innate and adaptive immunity and regulate gut dysbiosis. Increase IL-2 secretion and inhibit IL-10 secretion in ex vivo model
Dinić et al[43]	In vitro study-HepG2 human hepatocyte cell line	Lactobacillus fermentum BGHV 110	Stimulation of PTEN-induced putative kinase 1-dependent autophagy in HepG2 cells and mitigation of hepatotoxicity induced by acetaminophen
Bacterial vesicles
Hao et al[44]	In vivo mice	L. plantarum	Body weight loss and mitigate bleeding and colon shortening
Bacterial metabolites
He et al[45]	In vivo mice and in vitro in tumour cells	Short chain fatty acid-butyrate	Improve CD8+ T cell immunity providing anti-tumour effects
Suez and Elinav[46]	In vivo in mice	Phytate and inositol triphosphate	Enhance gut epithelial proliferation and injury recovery
Ma et al[47]	In vivo in mice	Indole	Activate PFKFB3 expression and inhibit macrophage activation, MASLD
Li et al[48]	In vivo in mice and in vitro bacterial culture	Isoallolithocolic acid	Regulation of Treg cells by bile acid metabolites
Dahech et al[49]	In vivo in male Wistar rats	Polysaccharides of Bacillus licheniformis	Reduce glucose levels and hepatic and renal toxicity measured through thiobarbituric acid reactive substances
Ghoneim et al[50]	In vivo in male Sprague-Dawlwy rats	Polysaccharides of Bacillus subtilis sp	Reduce glucose levels and prevent complications of diabetes
Amaretti et al[51]	In vitro	The mixture of Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, and Streptococcus thermophilus	Anti-oxidant properties
Segawa et al[52]	In vitro	Polyphosphates of Lactobacillus brevis SBC8803	Mediates epithelial barrier
Chen et al[53]	In vivo: Mice	SCFA of Clostridium butyricum sp	Regulate gut microbiome composition
Ticho et al[54]	In vivo in mice	Products of commensals after digestion of bile acids by Bacteroides, Eubacterium and Clostridium	Modulation via farsenoid-X receptor and GPCR5 which regulates lipid and lipoprotein metabolism
Rajakovich and Balskus[55]	In vivo	Products of Lactocilli, Bifidobacterium synthesize vitamins A, C, and B9	Enhance mucous secretion by epithelial cells and maintain the integrity of goblet cells
Noronha et al[56]	In vivo	Products of Bacteroides and thetaiotaomicron enhance angiogenin 4 expression	Angiogenin 4 has antibacterial activities
Other components
Balaguer et al[57]	In vivo in Caenorhabditis elegans	Lipoteichoic acid of Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. Lactis CECT 8145	Anti-obesity as it reduces fat in nematodes
Schiavi et al[58]	In vitro in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells	EPS of B. longum W11	Regulates cytokine secretion and nuclear factor kappa B activation through anti-inflammatory properties
Bhat and Bajaj[16]	In vitro	EPS of L. paracasei M7	Decrease total cholesterol, immunomodulation
Kim et al[59]	In vitro: Human monocyte cells (THP-1)	Lipoteichoic acid of L. plantarum	Inhibits pro-inflammatory signaling in THP-1 cells
Matsuguchi et al[60]	In vitro in RAW264.7 cells of mouse	Lipoteichoic acid of Lactobacillus acidophilus, Limosilactobacillus reuteri, L. plantarum	Attenuate LPS-induced tumor necrosis factor-alpha production
Wang et al[61]	In vivo in male mice	Lipoteichoic acid of L. paracasei D3-5	Stimulate mucin production through its anti-inflammatory role and reduces systemic endotoxemia
Rahbar Saadat et al[62]	In vivo in mice	EPS of L. paracasei	Exhibits cholesterol lowering and metabolic regulation properties
Kareem et al[63]	In vitro	Cell free supernatant of L. plantarum RG11, RG14, RI11, UL4, TL1, RS5	Antimicrobial activity
Bali et al[64]	In vitro	Cell-free supernatant Bifidobacterium sp	Bacteriocin production against pathogenic organisms
Foo et al[65]	In vivo in mice	L. plantarum I-UL4, Bacteriocin	Significant reduction in total cholesterol concentrations in comparison to controls
Riaz Rajoka et al[66]	In vitro	Cell-free supernatant of L. rhamnosus SHA111, SHA112, and SHA113	Induces apoptosis by up-regulation of BAD, BAX, Caspase-3, Caspase-8, Caspase-9, and down regulation of BCL-2 genes
Qi et al[67]	In vitro in RAW264.7 cells of mouse macrophages	Cell wall components of L. rhamnosus GG	Components protect macrophages from LPS-induced inflammation

A. muciniphila: Akkermansia muciniphila; B. longum: Bifidobacterium longum; EPS: Exopolysaccharide; L. paracasei: Lactobacillus paracasei; L. plantarum: Lactobacillus plantarum; LPS: Lipopolysaccharides; L. rhamnosus: Lactobacillus rhamnosus; MASLD: Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease.