To quantify the proportion of referrals sent to Crumlin Cardiology Department for cardiac screening prior to commencement or modifying attention deficit hyperactivity disorder medication and assess the number detected with a clinically significant abnormality.

A prospective audit was performed over a 6-month period, from November 2021 to April 2022 inclusive. Referrals sent via outpatient department triage letters, electrocardiogram dept. email, and walk-in electrocardiogram service were screened for those pertaining to commencing or modifying medication for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Each referral was coded against National Institute for Health and Care Excellence guidelines to determine the degree of clinical details given. Reported abnormalities, recommended management, and correspondence were recorded.

Ninety-one referrals were received during the 6-month audit period. More than half lacked a clinical indication for referral (53/91, 58.2%), with fewer than one third (26/91, 28.5%) meeting National Institute for Health and Care Excellence criteria for referral for cardiology. Eighty (80/91) referrals had clinical outcomes available for review (missing outpatient department information and age outside of service range accounted for eleven referrals with unavailable clinical outcomes). Of the eighty clinically reviewed referrals, seventy-two (72/80, 90%) were reported as normal with no cardiology follow up required. Eight referrals (8/80, 10%) were reviewed in the Cardiology Outpatient Department prior to commencement or modifying attention deficit hyperactivity disorder medication. Of these, only one (1/80 1%) had a clinically significant abnormality which was a potential contraindication to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder medication use, and this referral was appropriate as per National Institute for Health and Care Excellence guidelines.

Routine screening prior to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder medication prescription in the absence of clinical indications (as per National Institute for Health and Care Excellence) contributed to delays in medication initiation among young people with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Unnecessary referrals have resource implications for cardiology clinical team. Improved adherence to National Institute for Health and Care Excellence guidelines would provide benefits for patients and clinicians.

Sudden cardiac death in children is a rare event, but of great social significance. Generally, it is related to heart disease with a risk of sudden cardiac death (SCD), which may occur with cardiovascular symptoms and/or electrocardiographic markers; thus, a primary care paediatrician (PCP) could detect them. Therefore, we proposed a study that assesses how to put into practice and conduct a cardiovascular assessment within the routine healthy-child check-ups at six and twelve years of age; that reflects cardiovascular signs and symptoms, as well as the electrocardiographic alterations that children with a risk of SCD in the selected population present; and that assesses the PCP's skill at electrocardiogram (ECG) interpretation. In collaboration with PCPs, primary care nurses, and paediatric cardiologists, an observational, descriptive, multicentre, cross-sectional study was carried out in the Balearic Islands (Spain), from April 2021 to January 2022, inclusive. The PCPs gathered patient data through forms (medical record, electrocardiogram, and physical examination) and sent them to the investigator, together with the informed consent document and electrocardiogram. The investigator passed the electrocardiogram on to the paediatric cardiologists for reading, in an identical form to those the paediatricians had filled in. The variables were collected, and a descriptive analysis performed. Three paediatric cardiologists, twelve PCPs, and nine nurses from seven public health centres took part. They collected the data from 641 patients, but 233 patients did not participate (in 81.11% due to the PCP's workload). Therefore, the study coverage was around 64%, representing the quotient of the total number of patients who participated, divided by the total number of patients who were eligible for the study. We detected 30 patients with electrocardiographic alterations compatible with SCD risk. Nine of these had been examined by a paediatric cardiologist at some time (functional murmur in 8/9), five had reported shortness of breath with exercise, and four had reported a family history of sudden death. The physical examination of all the patients whose ECG was compatible with a risk of SCD was normal. Upon analysing to what extent the ECG results of the PCP and the paediatric cardiologist agreed, the percentage of agreement in the final interpretation (normal/altered) was 91.9%, while Cohen's kappa coefficient was 31.2% (CI 95%: 13.8-48.6%). The sensitivity of the ECG interpretation by the PCP to detect an ECG compatible with a risk of SCD was 29% and the positive predictive value 45%.     Conclusions: This study lays the foundations for future SCD risk screening in children, performed by PCPs. However, previously, it would be important to optimise their training in reading and interpreting paediatric ECGs. What is Known: • In Spain at present, there is a programme in place to detect heart disease with a risk of sudden death [1], but it targets only children who are starting on or are doing a physical activity as a federated sport. Implementing such screening programmes has proven effective in several countries [2]. However, several studies showed that the incidence of sudden cardiac death is no higher in children competing in sport activities than in those who do not do any sport [3]. This poses an ethical conflict, because at present, children who do not do any federated sport are excluded from screening. According to the revised literature, so far, only in two studies did they screen the child population at schools, and in both, they successfully detected patients with heart disease associated to the risk of sudden death [4, 5]. We have found no studies where the screening of these features was included within the routine healthy-child check-ups by primary care paediatricians. What is New: • We did not know whether-in our setting, at present-the primary care paediatrician could perform a screening method within the routine healthy-child check-ups, in order to detect presumably healthy children at risk of sudden cardiac death, as they present one of the SCD risks. In this regard, we proposed our project: to assess how to put into practice and conduct a cardiovascular assessment via SCD risk screening in the healthy child population by primary care paediatricians and appraise primary care paediatricians' skills in identifying the electrocardiographic alterations associated with SCD risk. The ultimate intention of this pilot study was to make it possible, in the future, to design and justify a study aimed at universalising cardiovascular screening and achieving a long-term decrease in sudden cardiac death events in children.

Preparticipation cardiovascular screening (PPCS) in young athletes is performed to detect conditions associated with sudden cardiac death. Many medical societies and sports governing bodies support the addition of a 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) to the history and physical to improve PPCS sensitivity. The current standard for ECG interpretation in athletes, the International Criteria, was developed to distinguish physiologic from pathologic ECG findings in athletes. Although application of the International Criteria has reduced the PPCS false-positive rate, interpretative challenges and potential areas of improvement remain. This review provides an overview of common pitfalls and future directions for ECG interpretation in athletes.

The primary objective was to evaluate the ECG trace paper evaluation current knowledge level in a group of Orthopaedic surgeons divided into juniors and seniors according to M.D. degree possession.

A cross sectional study through self-administered questionnaires at a university hospital Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery Department. The questionnaire included five sections: 1-Basic participants' characteristics, 2-Participants' perception of their ECG evaluation current knowledge level, 3-The main body of the questionnaire was an ECG quiz (seven); the participant was asked to determine if it was normal and the possible diagnosis, 4-Participants' desired ECG evaluation knowledge level, and 5-Willingness to attend ECG evaluation workshops.

Of the 121 actively working individuals in the department, 96 (97.3 %) finished the questionnaire, and 85 (77.3 %) were valid for final evaluation. The participants' mean age was 30.4 ± 6.92 years, 76.5 % juniors and 23.5 % seniors. 83.5 % of the participants perceived their current ECG evaluation knowledge as none or limited. For participants' ability to evaluate an ECG, higher scores were achieved when determining if the ECG was normal or abnormal, with a mean score percentage of 79.32 % ± 23.27. However, the scores were lower when trying to reach the diagnosis, with a mean score percentage of 43.02 % ± 27.48. There was a significant negative correlation between the participant's age and answering the normality question correctly (r = -0.277, p = 0.01); and a significant positive correlation between answering the diagnosis question correctly and the desired level of knowledge and the intention to attend a workshop about ECG evaluation, r = 0.355 (p = 0.001), and r = 0.223 (p = 0.04), respectively. Only 56.5 % of the participants desired to get more knowledge, and 81.2 % were interested in attending ECG evaluation workshops.

Orthopaedic surgeons showed sufficient knowledge when determining the normality of ECG trace papers; however, they could not reach the proper diagnosis, and Junior surgeons performed slightly better than their senior peers. Most surgeons are willing to attend ECG evaluation and interpretation workshops to improve their knowledge level.

In this correspondence, we highlight the risk of sudden cardiac death associated with undiagnosed cardiomyopathies. Life-threatening arrhythmias, which underlie sudden cardiac death, can be triggered by high-intensity exercise. It raises the question whether, and if so, how athletes should be screened for cardiomyopathies. The example of practice from Italy is discussed. We also briefly discuss novel developments, such as wearable biosensors and machine learning, which could be applied to screening for cardiomyopathies in future.

Preparticipation cardiovascular screening (PPCS) in young athletes is performed to detect conditions associated with sudden cardiac death. Many medical societies and sports governing bodies support the addition of a 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) to the history and physical to improve PPCS sensitivity. The current standard for ECG interpretation in athletes, the International Criteria, was developed to distinguish physiologic from pathologic ECG findings in athletes. Although application of the International Criteria has reduced the PPCS false-positive rate, interpretative challenges and potential areas of improvement remain. This review provides an overview of common pitfalls and future directions for ECG interpretation in athletes.

Artificial intelligence (AI) has become a mainstream technology in many industries, but not yet in health care. Although basic research and commercial investment are burgeoning across various clinical disciplines, AI remains relatively non-existent in most healthcare organisations. This is despite hundreds of AI applications having passed proof-of-concept phase, and scores receiving regulatory approval overseas. AI has considerable potential to optimise multiple care processes, maximise workforce capacity, reduce waste and costs, and improve patient outcomes. The current obstacles to wider AI adoption in health care and the pre-requisites for its successful development, evaluation and implementation need to be defined.

The combination of big data and artificial intelligence (AI) is having an increasing impact on the field of electrophysiology. Algorithms are created to improve the automated diagnosis of clinical ECGs or ambulatory rhythm devices. Furthermore, the use of AI during invasive electrophysiological studies or combining several diagnostic modalities into AI algorithms to aid diagnostics are being investigated. However, the clinical performance and applicability of created algorithms are yet unknown. In this narrative review, opportunities and threats of AI in the field of electrophysiology are described, mainly focusing on ECGs. Current opportunities are discussed with their potential clinical benefits as well as the challenges. Challenges in data acquisition, model performance, (external) validity, clinical implementation, algorithm interpretation as well as the ethical aspects of AI research are discussed. This article aims to guide clinicians in the evaluation of new AI applications for electrophysiology before their clinical implementation.

Pre-participation cardiovascular screening (PPCS) in athletes is recommended by numerous medical and sporting societies. While there is consensus that young athletes should be screened prior to participation in competitive sports, there are on-going debates regarding the true incidence of sudden cardiac death (SCD), the most frequent causes of SCD, and the optimal methods for PPCS.

This review focuses on the current evidence for the incidence of SCD, causes of SCD, and the pros and cons of a history and physical exam (H&P) and electrocardiogram (ECG) in PPCS of young competitive athletes.

With significant controversy surrounding PPCS in athletes, a large-randomized trial powered for mortality is needed to assess the utility of PPCS and to define the optimal screening methods to detect cardiovascular diseases that may lead to SCD in competitive athletes. Until a trial of this caliber is created, controversy will remain and heterogeneity in care will exist. Future research should also define the optimal timing and frequency of PPCS given age-related penetrance of certain diseases, create evidence-based history questionnaires, continue to optimize ECG screening criteria, and create more learning modules for ECG interpretation in athletes.

Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is the leading cause of mortality in athletes during sport. A variety of mostly hereditary, structural, or electrical cardiac disorders are associated with SCD in young athletes, the majority of which can be identified or suggested by abnormalities on a resting 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG). Whether used for diagnostic or screening purposes, physicians responsible for the cardiovascular care of athletes should be knowledgeable and competent in ECG interpretation in athletes. However, in most countries a shortage of physician expertise limits wider application of the ECG in the care of the athlete. A critical need exists for physician education in modern ECG interpretation that distinguishes normal physiological adaptations in athletes from distinctly abnormal findings suggestive of underlying pathology. Since the original 2010 European Society of Cardiology recommendations for ECG interpretation in athletes, ECG standards have evolved quickly over the last decade; pushed by a growing body of scientific data that both tests proposed criteria sets and establishes new evidence to guide refinements. On 26-27 February 2015, an international group of experts in sports cardiology, inherited cardiac disease, and sports medicine convened in Seattle, Washington, to update contemporary standards for ECG interpretation in athletes. The objective of the meeting was to define and revise ECG interpretation standards based on new and emerging research and to develop a clear guide to the proper evaluation of ECG abnormalities in athletes. This statement represents an international consensus for ECG interpretation in athletes and provides expert opinion-based recommendations linking specific ECG abnormalities and the secondary evaluation for conditions associated with SCD.

To assess the impact of participation in an educational presentation on electrocardiogram (ECG) interpretation in children on pediatric practitioners' ability to accurately interpret ECGs.

Pediatric healthcare providers at a pediatric clinic with >65 000 visits/year were eligible to participate. A 1-hour ECG educational module that provided a systematic approach to ECG interpretation was presented to 8 providers who consented (6 pediatricians, 2 pediatric nurse practitioners). A test on 11 ECGs (normal, normal-variant, and abnormal ECGs) was given before and 2 weeks after the educational module. Outcomes included correct interpretation of each ECG as normal or abnormal and correct identification of specific ECG findings. Data analysis was descriptive and included χ² and Student t test.

Mean score (SD) for correct interpretation of ECGs as normal or abnormal improved from 35% (48%) (95% CI 25.0-45.4) to 77% (42%) (95% CI 68.3-86.2) after the ECG educational module (P < .001). Mean (SD) pretest score for correct identification in the normal ECG category improved from 45% (50%) (95% CI 28.9-61.1) to 68% (47%) (95% CI 52.3-82.7) (P= .003). In the abnormal ECG category, correct identification improved from 31% (47%) (95% CI 17.6-44.9) to 83% (5%) (95% CI 72.4-94.3) after the module (P < .001).

Education of pediatric practitioners on ECG interpretation significantly improves their ability to distinguish normal from abnormal and to identify specific abnormalities. Limitations included small sample size and short-term follow-up.

Sudden cardiac death in a young healthy athlete is a rare but catastrophic event. The American Heart Association preparticipation screening guidelines recommend a focused history and physical without routine imaging or electrocardiogram screening. We hypothesized that a focused echocardiogram can identify structural abnormalities that may lead to sudden cardiac death in athletes, which might otherwise go undetected by history and physical. We retrospectively reviewed the charts of all incoming collegiate athletes at a single university from 2005 to 2013, all of whom had undergone a focused, 5-minute echocardiogram along with a guideline-based preparticipation history and physical (PPS H&P). Abnormal findings prompted further testing or referral. We report the prevalence of abnormal findings and the relation between an abnormal PPS H&P and screening echocardiogram. A total of 2,898 athletes were screened and 159 (5%) had findings. Forty athletes underwent further testing and evaluation. Of these athletes, 3 had newly diagnosed abnormalities that warranted restriction of participation: 1 apical-variant hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, 1 large bidirectional atrial septal defect with right ventricular dysfunction, and 1 dilated ascending aorta. Two of these athletes had a normal PPS H&P. Conversely, of the 661 athletes with an abnormal PPS H&P, only 1 (0.15%) had an abnormal screening echocardiogram. In conclusion, although the overall number was low, the 5-minute screening echocardiogram detected athletes at risk for sudden cardiac death not discovered on PPS H&P.

International criteria for the interpretation of the athlete's electrocardiogram (ECG) have been proposed. We aimed to evaluate the inter-observer agreement among observers with different levels of expertise.

Consecutive ECGs of Swiss elite athletes (≥14 years), recorded during routine pre-participation screening between 2013 and 2016 at the Swiss Federal Institute of Sports were analysed. A medical student (A), a cardiology fellow (B) and an electrophysiologist (C) interpreted the ECG's independently according to the most recent criteria. The frequencies and percentages for each observer were calculated. An inter-observer reliability analysis using Cohen Kappa (κ) statistics was used to determine consistency among observers.

A total of 287 ECGs (64.1% males) were analysed. Mean age of the athletes was 20.4±4.9 years. The prevalence of abnormal ECG findings was 1.4%. Both, normal and borderline findings in athletes showed moderate to good agreement between all observers. κ scores for abnormal findings resulted in excellent agreement (κ 0.855 in observer A vs C and B vs C to κ 1.000 in observer A vs B). Overall agreement ranged from moderate (κ 0.539; 0.419-0.685 95% CI) between observer B vs C to good agreement (κ 0.720; 0.681-0.821 95% CI) between observer A vs B.

Our cohort of elite athletes had a low prevalence of abnormal ECGs. Agreement in abnormal ECG findings with the use of the recently published International recommendations for ECG interpretation in athletes among observers with different levels of expertise was excellent. ECG interpretation resulted in moderate to good overall agreement.

This study evaluates the ability of experienced pediatric electrophysiologists (EPs) to reliably classify incomplete right bundle branch block (IRBBB) and assesses its clinical utility as an isolated ECG finding in a group of healthy outpatient children without prior cardiac evaluation.

We performed a retrospective analysis of all electrocardiographic and echocardiographic records at Boston Children's Hospital between January 1, 2005, and December 31, 2014. Echocardiographic diagnoses were identified if registered between the date of the index electrocardiogram and the ensuing year. A selected subset of 473 ECGs was subsequently reanalyzed in a blinded manner by six pediatric EPs to determine the consistency with which the finding of IRBBB could be assigned.

Of the 331 278 ECGs registered in the BCH database, 32 127 (9.7%) met inclusion criteria and were analyzed for the prevalence of isolated right bundle conduction disturbance findings. The mean age was 12.1 ± 4.0 years, and the population was 49% male. Of the 32 127 ECGs, 72.5% were coded normal, 3.0% were coded IRBBB, and 0.5% were coded complete right bundle branch block (CRBBB). A total of 7.3% of patients coded as normal had an ensuing echocardiogram, compared to 12.5% coded IRBBB. Echo findings were recorded in 0.1% of normal and 0.2% of IRBBB. Patients with ASD-secundum type were no more likely to have isolated IRBBB on previous ECG than the general population (2.5% vs 3.0%). Analysis of inter-reader variability in ECG findings and conduction disturbance identification was high (range of IRBBB prevalence 1-20% among readers). Reinterpretation of ECGs using explicit diagnostic criteria did not demonstrate consistent discrimination of IRBBB and Normal ECGs.

IRBBB is not uncommon in a healthy school age population and is observed to have high inter-reader variability. It was associated with increased use of echocardiographic exam but was not associated with increased rate of echocardiographic findings when compared with rates for normal ECGs.

Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is the leading cause of mortality in athletes during sport. A variety of mostly hereditary, structural, or electrical cardiac disorders are associated with SCD in young athletes, the majority of which can be identified or suggested by abnormalities on a resting 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG). Whether used for diagnostic or screening purposes, physicians responsible for the cardiovascular care of athletes should be knowledgeable and competent in ECG interpretation in athletes. However, in most countries a shortage of physician expertise limits wider application of the ECG in the care of the athlete. A critical need exists for physician education in modern ECG interpretation that distinguishes normal physiological adaptations in athletes from distinctly abnormal findings suggestive of underlying pathology. Since the original 2010 European Society of Cardiology recommendations for ECG interpretation in athletes, ECG standards have evolved quickly over the last decade; pushed by a growing body of scientific data that both tests proposed criteria sets and establishes new evidence to guide refinements. On February 26-27, 2015, an international group of experts in sports cardiology, inherited cardiac disease, and sports medicine convened in Seattle, Washington, to update contemporary standards for ECG interpretation in athletes. The objective of the meeting was to define and revise ECG interpretation standards based on new and emerging research and to develop a clear guide to the proper evaluation of ECG abnormalities in athletes. This statement represents an international consensus for ECG interpretation in athletes and provides expert opinion-based recommendations linking specific ECG abnormalities and the secondary evaluation for conditions associated with SCD.

Assessment of the electrocardiogram (ECG) in athletes remains controversial, with lack of standardization and difficulty in applying specific criteria in its interpretation. The purpose of this study was to assess variability in the interpretation of the ECG in athletes.

Twenty ECGs of competitive athletes were assessed by cardiologists and cardiology residents, 11 of them normal or with isolated physiological changes and nine pathological. Each ECG was classified as normal/physiological or pathological, with or without the use of specific interpretation criteria.

The study presents responses from 58 physicians, 42 (72.4%) of them cardiologists. Sixteen (27.6%) physicians reported that they regularly assessed athletes and 32 (55.2%) did not use specific ECG interpretation criteria, of which the Seattle criteria were the most commonly used (n=13). Each physician interpreted 15±2 ECGs correctly, corresponding to 74% of the total number of ECGs (variation: 45%-100%). Interpretation of pathological ECGs was correct in 68% (variation: 22%-100%) and of normal/physiological in 79% (variation: 55%-100%). There was no significant difference in interpretation between cardiologists and residents (74±10% vs. 75±10%; p=0.724) or between those who regularly assessed athletes and those who did not (77±12% vs. 73±9%; p=0.286), but there was a trend for a higher rate of correct interpretation using specific criteria (77±10% vs. 72±10%; p=0.092). The reproducibility of the study was excellent (intraclass correlation coefficient=0.972; p<0.001).

A quarter of the ECGs were not correctly assessed and variability in interpretation was high. The use of specific criteria can improve the accuracy of interpretation of athletes' ECGs, which is an important part of pre-competitive screening, but one that is underused.

Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is the leading cause of mortality in athletes during sport. A variety of mostly hereditary, structural or electrical cardiac disorders are associated with SCD in young athletes, the majority of which can be identified or suggested by abnormalities on a resting 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG). Whether used for diagnostic or screening purposes, physicians responsible for the cardiovascular care of athletes should be knowledgeable and competent in ECG interpretation in athletes. However, in most countries a shortage of physician expertise limits wider application of the ECG in the care of the athlete. A critical need exists for physician education in modern ECG interpretation that distinguishes normal physiological adaptations in athletes from distinctly abnormal findings suggestive of underlying pathology. Since the original 2010 European Society of Cardiology recommendations for ECG interpretation in athletes, ECG standards have evolved quickly, advanced by a growing body of scientific data and investigations that both examine proposed criteria sets and establish new evidence to guide refinements. On 26-27 February 2015, an international group of experts in sports cardiology, inherited cardiac disease, and sports medicine convened in Seattle, Washington (USA), to update contemporary standards for ECG interpretation in athletes. The objective of the meeting was to define and revise ECG interpretation standards based on new and emerging research and to develop a clear guide to the proper evaluation of ECG abnormalities in athletes. This statement represents an international consensus for ECG interpretation in athletes and provides expert opinion-based recommendations linking specific ECG abnormalities and the secondary evaluation for conditions associated with SCD.

Cardiovascular screening in young athletes is widely recommended and routinely performed prior to participation in competitive sports. While there is general agreement that early detection of cardiac conditions at risk for sudden cardiac arrest and death (SCA/D) is an important objective, the optimal strategy for cardiovascular screening in athletes remains an issue of considerable debate. At the center of the controversy is the addition of a resting electrocardiogram (ECG) to the standard preparticipation evaluation using history and physical examination. The American Medical Society for Sports Medicine (AMSSM) formed a task force to address the current evidence and knowledge gaps regarding preparticipation cardiovascular screening in athletes from the perspective of a primary care sports medicine physician. The absence of definitive outcomes-based evidence at this time precludes AMSSM from endorsing any single or universal cardiovascular screening strategy for all athletes, including legislative mandates. This statement presents a new paradigm to assist the individual physician in assessing the most appropriate cardiovascular screening strategy unique to their athlete population, community needs, and resources. The decision to implement a cardiovascular screening program, with or without the addition of ECG, necessitates careful consideration of the risk of SCA/D in the targeted population and the availability of cardiology resources and infrastructure. Importantly, it is the individual physician's assessment in the context of an emerging evidence-base that the chosen model for early detection of cardiac disorders in the specific population provides greater benefit than harm. AMSSM is committed to advancing evidenced-based research and educational initiatives that will validate and promote the most efficacious strategies to foster safe sport participation and reduce SCA/D in athletes.

Cardiovascular screening in young athletes is widely recommended and routinely performed prior to participation in competitive sports. While there is general agreement that early detection of cardiac conditions at risk for sudden cardiac arrest and death (SCA/D) is an important objective, the optimal strategy for cardiovascular screening in athletes remains an issue of considerable debate. At the centre of the controversy is the addition of a resting ECG to the standard preparticipation evaluation using history and physical examination. The American Medical Society for Sports Medicine (AMSSM) formed a task force to address the current evidence and knowledge gaps regarding preparticipation cardiovascular screening in athletes from the perspective of a primary care sports medicine physician. The absence of definitive outcome-based evidence at this time precludes AMSSM from endorsing any single or universal cardiovascular screening strategy for all athletes, including legislative mandates. This statement presents a new paradigm to assist the individual physician in assessing the most appropriate cardiovascular screening strategy unique to their athlete population, community needs and resources. The decision to implement a cardiovascular screening programme, with or without the addition of ECG, necessitates careful consideration of the risk of SCA/D in the targeted population and the availability of cardiology resources and infrastructure. Importantly, it is the individual physician's assessment in the context of an emerging evidence base that the chosen model for early detection of cardiac disorders in the specific population provides greater benefit than harm. AMSSM is committed to advancing evidenced-based research and educational initiatives that will validate and promote the most efficacious strategies to foster safe sport participation and reduce SCA/D in athletes.

Although the occurrence of sudden cardiac death (SCD) in a young person is a rare event, it is traumatic and often widely publicized. In recent years, SCD in this population has been increasingly seen as a public health and safety issue. This review presents current knowledge relevant to the epidemiology of SCD and to strategies for prevention, resuscitation, and identification of those at greatest risk. Areas of active research and controversy include the development of best practices in screening, risk stratification approaches and postmortem evaluation, and identification of modifiable barriers to providing better outcomes after resuscitation of young SCD patients. Institution of a national registry of SCD in the young will provide data that will help to answer these questions.

Sudden cardiac death (SCD) affects 2/100,000 young, active athletes per year of which 40% are less than 18 years old. In 2004, the International Olympic Committee accepted the Lausanne Recommendations, including a 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG), as a pre-participation screening tool for adult Olympic athletes. The debate on extending those recommendations to the pediatric population has recently begun. The aims of our study were to highlight the characteristics of the young athlete ECG, phenotypical manifestations of SCD-related disease in children, and challenges of implanting ECG screening in athletic children. A systematic review of the literature is performed. We searched available electronic medical databases for articles relevant to SCD, ECG, silent cardiac diseases, and athletic children. We focused on ECG screening and description in a pediatric population. We identified 2240 studies. Sixty-two relevant articles and one book were selected. In children, prepubertal ECG and the ECG phenotype of most SCD-related diseases differ notably from adults. The characteristics of the prepubertal ECG and of the phenotypical manifestation of SCD-related disease in children will result in less specific and less sensitive ECG-based screening programs. Those limitations advise against extending the adult recommendation to children, without further studies. Until then, history and physical exam should remain the cornerstone of screening for SCD-related pathologies in children.

The role of the ECG in preparticipation sports screening for adolescent athletes is a major area of controversy today. Sudden cardiac death, especially in a young seemingly healthy individual, is a tragic and highly publicized event, which is often surrounded by cries from the public and medical community to 'do something.'

This emotional need to address these catastrophic events has led to over 4000 articles addressing the optimal way to screen the young athlete, as well as conflicting recommendations from the American Heart Association and the European Society of Cardiology, specifically in regards to inclusion of a screening ECG. This article will review the advances in the field over the last year, including the new guidelines on screening of the young athlete from the American Heart Association.

This last year has seen several important additions to the controversy surrounding the use of the 12-lead ECG in the screening of the young athlete. Although improved ECG criteria have decreased the prevalence of false positives, the actual utility of this practice has not been tested in real clinical practice outside of a formal investigation.

Screening for conditions associated with sudden cardiac arrest in the United States (US) is aimed at high school athletes in most states and utilizes a preparticipation history and physical form that is not standardized across the US. In Italy, data have shown that their incidence of sudden cardiac arrest has decreased significantly after implementation of an electrocardiographic-based screening program including history and physical exam. The American Heart Association recommendations do not include an electrocardiogram. A recent AHA statement has suggested that those screening athletes should consider all children of similar ages in the selected venue, but still should not include an electrocardiogram. A number of models of screening are presented along with a best practice recommendation for further evaluation and study.

In this article we describe a qualitative research study in which we explored individuals' subjective experiences of both genetic testing and cardiogenetic disorders. Using a grounded theory approach, we coded and analyzed interview and focus group transcripts from 50 participants. We found that just under half of the participants who received their diagnosis during the study reported difficulty understanding information about both the purpose of genetic testing and their cardiac disease. A high level of anxiety about genetic testing and cardiac symptoms exacerbated individuals' cognitive confusion. Participants reported both positive and negative interactions with the medical community, depending on health care professionals' knowledge of cardiogenetic disorders. Overall, participants expressed a range of attitudes--positive, negative, and ambivalent--toward genetic testing. We conclude with a discussion of the barriers to achieving effective clinical care for genetic conditions and offer suggestions for improving collaborative decision making between physicians and patients.

Genetic testing now makes it possible to identify specific mutations that may lead to life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias. This article presents data from a qualitative research study that explored the subjective experiences of individuals and families with cardiogenetic conditions. We focus on describing patients' experiences of psychological stresses associated with having a cardiogenetic condition, illustrating the importance of integrating psychological and medical care. This integration of care is particularly important as personalized genomic medicine continues to evolve and the implications of genetic testing have a profound effect on individuals and families.

The researchers interviewed 50 participants from 32 families. The research team used a systematic, grounded theory procedure to code and analyze interview and focus group transcripts, incorporating multiple coders at several stages of the data analysis process.

Three major themes emerged: a bereavement trajectory associated with sudden death in the absence of prior symptoms; high anxiety about transmitting a genetic mutation; and resilience reflected in positive lifestyle changes and participation in support groups.

This article identifies patient perspectives on personalized genomic medicine in cardiogenetics that can improve clinical care, including: specialized bereavement counseling; improving education about cardiogenetic conditions for medical professionals; parent guidelines for discussing cardiogenetic conditions with their children; information about support groups; and the routine inclusion of clinical psychologists in interdisciplinary treatment teams. Given recent advances in technology and decreasing costs, whole-genome sequencing is likely to become common practice in the near future. Therefore, these recommendations are likely to be relevant for other genetic conditions, as well as the entire field of personalized genomic medicine.

Sudden cardiac death in young athletes is a devastating event. Screening programs have been proposed to prevent sudden cardiac death in young athletes. Mortality rates and causes of death differ among young adults and children. Children have a considerably lower incidence of sudden cardiac death. Data lack to compare athletes and non-athletes in childhood, but 40-50 % of sudden cardiac death in this age group seems to be related to exercise. Screening programs including history and physical exam are not very sensitive or specific and will result in important numbers of false-positives and false-negatives. Especially, interpretation of ECG in children is different from ECG in adults, with less accurate diagnoses as a consequence. Secondary prevention by widespread education of simple resuscitation techniques and use of automatic external defibrillators if available will probably save as many lives as any screening program.

Sufficient data are lacking to support general preparticipation screening with history, physical exam, and ECG in competitive children. Nevertheless, the impact of such a program, together with secondary preventive measures, should be evaluated in large prospective studies.

Paediatric electrocardiograms (ECGs) are ordered and interpreted by general paediatricians; however, no previous studies have evaluated the accuracy of their ECG interpretations.

To determine general paediatricians' practice and opinions regarding ECG use, accuracy of their interpretation of paediatric ECGs, and the relationship between accuracy and self-perceived confidence.

In the present cross-sectional study, Canadian general paediatricians were asked to complete a questionnaire and interpret 18 paediatric ECGs. The questionnaire assessed characteristics of ECG use, self-perceived confidence and opinions regarding ECG use in general paediatric practice. For the ECGs provided, respondents were asked whether the ECG was normal or abnormal, what abnormality the ECG demonstrated and how confident they were in this interpretation.

ECG interpretation was performed by 124 general paediatricians. General paediatricians frequently use ECGs in their practice and regard this investigation as useful in patient assessment. The mean (± SD) accuracy of identifying ECGs as normal or abnormal, and identifying the specific abnormality was 80±12% and 56±20%, respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of identifying abnormal ECGs were 80% (95% CI 78% to 82%) and 79% (95% CI 75% to 83%), respectively. Correct ECG interpretation for isolated rhythm disturbances (73%) was significantly better than for abnormalities in axis (25%), chamber hypertrophy (41%) and ECG intervals (49%) (P<0.001). Overall confidence in ECG interpretation correlated with and was the only significant predictor of interpretation accuracy (r=0.396, P<0.001).

General paediatricians were adept at detecting abnormal ECGs, but were less able to identify the abnormalities. Further education in ECG interpretation may be important for this population.

Electrocardiogram (ECG) with preparticipation evaluation (PPE) for athletes remains controversial in the United States and diagnostic accuracy of clinician ECG interpretation is unclear. This study aimed to assess reliability and validity of clinician ECG interpretation using expert-validated ECGs according to the 2010 European Society of Cardiology (ESC) interpretation criteria.

This is a blinded, prospective study of diagnostic accuracy of clinician ECG interpretation. Anonymized ECGs were validated for normal and abnormal patterns by blinded expert interpreters according to the ESC interpretation criteria from October 2011 through March 2012. Six pairs of clinician interpreters were recruited from relevant clinical specialties in an academic medical center in March 2012. Each clinician interpreted 85 ECGs according to the ESC interpretation guidelines. Cohen and Fleiss' kappa, sensitivity, and specificity were calculated within specialties and across primary care and cardiology specialty groups.

Experts interpreted 189 ECGs yielding a kappa of 0.63, demonstrating "substantial" inter-rater agreement. A total of 85 validated ECGs, including 26 abnormals, were selected for clinician interpretation. The kappa across cardiology specialists was "substantial" and "moderate" across primary care (0.69 vs 0.52, respectively, P < 0.001). Sensitivity and specificity to detect abnormal patterns were similar between cardiology and primary care groups (sensitivity 93.3% vs 81.3%, respectively, P = 0.31; specificity 88.8% vs 89.8%, respectively, P = 0.91).

Clinician ECG interpretation according to the ESC interpretation criteria appears to demonstrate limited reliability and validity. Before widespread adoption of ECG for PPE of U.S. athletes, further research of training focused on improved reliability and validity of clinician ECG interpretation is warranted.

Pre-participation electrocardiogram (ECG) screening of athletes is controversial. Pediatric electrophysiologists do not interpret screening ECGs more accurately than pediatric cardiologists with average number of correct ECG interpretations of 13.1-12.4 (P = .14). Electrophysiologists ordered fewer follow-up tests and were more likely to give sports recommendations based on published guidelines.

Risk factors for adult cardiovascular events can be identified from the prenatal period through childhood. We performed a cardiovascular risk-screening program in students from grades 9-12 in 7 high schools in Hillsborough County, FL. We obtained blood pressure (BP) measurements and calculated body mass index (BMI) as risk factors for future cardiovascular events as well as obtained an electrocardiogram (ECG) for the purposes of detecting possible life-threatening arrhythmias. Of ~14,000 students contacted, 600 (4 %) participated in the screening. Of these, 517 (86 %) were diagnosed with normal, 71 (12 %) with borderline, and 12 (1 %) with abnormal ECGs. Although no participant had any cardiac history, two of the abnormal ECGs indicated a cardiac diagnosis associated with the potential for sudden cardiac death. Both systolic and diastolic BP increased as the ECG diagnosis moved from normal (115.6/73.8) through borderline (121.0/75.9) to an abnormal (125.0/80.7) diagnosis (all P ≤ .0016). An increase in BMI was only observed when an ECG diagnosis was abnormal (P = .0180). Boys had a greater prevalence (18.97 %) of borderline or abnormal ECGs compared with girls (6.75 %), whereas no discernible differences were seen in ECG diagnosis between white and nonwhite individuals (15.09 and 12.26 %, respectively). Although participation rates were low, a high school-based cardiovascular risk-screening program including ECG is feasible. Although ECG diagnosis tended to be related to other known cardiovascular risk factors (BP, BMI), the utility of an abnormal ECG in adolescence as a predictor of future cardiovascular risk will require further evaluation in more controlled settings.