Molecular and cellular mechanisms of pentadecanoic acid

Figure 1 Odd-chain β-oxidation of pentadecanoic acid culminates in propionyl-CoA, which is carboxylated to succinyl-CoA and converted to succinate, thereby replenishing the tricarboxylic-acid cycle. Even-chain palmitate yields only acetyl-CoA and supplies no succinate; net stoichiometric difference is +1 succinate per mole pentadecanoic acid oxidized. C15:0: Pentadecanoic acid; C16:0: Palmitic acid; FAD: Flavin adenine dinucleotide; FADH₂: Dihydroflavine-adenine dinucleotide; NAD: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; NADH: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; TCA: Tricarboxylic acid.

Figure 2 Integrated signaling network engaged by pentadecanoic acid. Colored arrows denote directionality (open triangle: Activation; blunt: Inhibition). Numeric annotations indicate representative potencies or efficacies extracted from in-cell assays. AMPK: AMP-activated protein kinase; C15:0: Pentadecanoic acid; EC₅₀: Half-maximal activation; JAK: Janus kinase; HDAC6: Histone deacetylase 6; mTOR: Mechanistic target of rapamycin; NF-κB: Nuclear factor kappa B; PPARα/δ: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α/δ; STAT3: Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3.

Figure 3 Log₂ fold-change heat-map illustrates broad down-regulation (blue) of pro-inflammatory biomarkers by 17 μmol/L pentadecanoic acid across diverse human primary-cell systems. Asterisks indicate P < 0.05 within BioMAP^® panel. IL: Interleukin; IP-10: Inducible protein of 10 kilodaltons; MCP-1: Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; MMP-1: Matrix metalloproteinase-1; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha; VCAM-1: Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1.

Figure 4 Radar plot compares seven pathophysiological domains of biomarker overlap. Pentadecanoic acid (teal) achieves broad modulation rivaling rapamycin and metformin, and exceeds eicosapentaenoic acid in antifibrotic and antisenescent domains. C15:0: Pentadecanoic acid; EPA: Eicosapentaenoic acid.