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World J Biol Chem. Jun 5, 2025; 16(2): 107042
Published online Jun 5, 2025. doi: 10.4331/wjbc.v16.i2.107042
Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine: Immunomodulatory effects in autoimmune diseases
Moosa Al-Hamadani, Mahmoud Darweesh, Saeed Mohammadi, Ahmed Al-Harrasi
Moosa Al-Hamadani, Mahmoud Darweesh, Saeed Mohammadi, Ahmed Al-Harrasi, Natural and Medical Sciences Research Center, University of Nizwa, Nizwa 616, Ad Dakhiliyah, Oman
Co-corresponding authors: Saeed Mohammadi and Ahmed Al-Harrasi.
Author contributions: Al-Hamadani M reviewed the literature, prepared information, and drafted the manuscript; Mohammadi S and Al-Harrasi A conceptualized the review, proposed the title, and provided critical reviews; All authors have read and approved the final manuscript. Al-Hamadani M and Darweesh M reviewed relevant literature, gathered essential information, and drafted the initial version of the manuscript. Al-Hamadani M organized the data and ensured the integration of comprehensive and relevant studies into the review. Al-Hamadani M and Darweesh M synthesized the gathered information and contributed significantly to the initial manuscript draft. Mohammadi S and Al-Harrasi A conceptualized the overall scope of the review article and proposed the title. Mohammadi S offered essential perspectives that maintained the manuscript's logical flow and improved its scientific precision during the revision stages. Al-Harrasi A conducted extensive reviews and contributed to revising the content to meet high academic standards. Both Mohammadi S and Al-Harrasi A played important and essential roles in the conceptual design, critical review, and manuscript preparation as co-corresponding authors. Mohammadi S supervised the entire review process, provided continuous oversight, and ensured the manuscript's coherence. Al-Harrasi A contributed significantly to the critical review, enhancing the manuscript's quality and accuracy. This collaboration between Mohammadi S and Al-Harrasi A was essential for the successful completion and publication of this manuscript. Their combined efforts in conceptual design, critical review, and supervision were crucial for maintaining the manuscript's high standards and academic integrity.
Supported by the Oman Ministry of Higher Education, Research, and Innovation, No. BFP/RGP/HSS/24/015.
Conflict-of-interest statement: All the authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest to disclose.
Open Access: This article is an open-access article that was selected by an in-house editor and fully peer-reviewed by external reviewers. It is distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited and the use is non-commercial. See: https://creativecommons.org/Licenses/by-nc/4.0/
Corresponding author: Saeed Mohammadi, Assistant Professor, PhD, Natural and Medical Sciences Research Center, University of Nizwa, Birkat Al Mauz, PO Box 33, Nizwa 616, Ad Dakhiliyah, Oman. s.mohammadi@unizwa.edu.om
Received: March 13, 2025
Revised: April 10, 2025
Accepted: May 7, 2025
Published online: June 5, 2025
Processing time: 77 Days and 17.6 Hours
Core Tip

Core Tip: Chloroquine (CQ) and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) are antimalarial drugs repurposed for autoimmune diseases. CQ and HCQ work through multiple mechanisms, including inhibition of Toll-like receptor signaling, suppression of antigen presentation, and modulation of autophagy. These drugs have shown clinical efficacy in autoimmune diseases, including systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, and others. CQ and HCQ are generally well-tolerated with a favorable safety profile compared to many conventional immunosuppressants. Long-term use of CQ and HCQ can lead to ocular toxicity, necessitating regular ophthalmologic evaluations. Further research is needed to fully elucidate the therapeutic potential of CQ and HCQ in autoimmune diseases.