Advancement in the diagnosis and treatment of hepatic portal venous gas

Table 1 Etiological classification of hepatic portal venous gas

Classification	Etiology
Low-risk	Ulcerative disease: Esophageal ulcer, non-perforated gastric ulcer, non-perforated intestinal ulcer
	Inflammatory disease: Pancreatitis, ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease, appendicitis, enteritis, cholangitis, diverticulitis
	Iatrogenic interventions: Liver transplantation surgery, biliary tract surgery, gastrointestinal surgery, colonoscopy, cardiac surgery, spinal surgery, endoscopic procedures, hemodialysis, and interventional operation
	Others: Diving, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, trauma, poisoning, drugs, etc.
Middle-risk	Perforation: Esophageal perforation, gastric ulcer perforation, duodenal ulcer perforation, jejunal ulcer perforation, intestinal diverticular disease with perforation, intestinal perforation
	Obstruction or dilation: Pyloric stenosis, duodenal obstruction, acute cholelytic intestinal obstruction, paralytic intestinal obstruction
	Tumor: Oral and pharyngeal malignant tumor, esophageal malignant tumor, gastric cancer, small intestinal malignant tumor, colon cancer, rectosigmoid colon malignant tumor, malignant tumors of the anus and anal canal, malignant tumors of the liver and intrahepatic bile ducts, gallbladder cancer, malignant tumors of other unknown parts of the biliary tract, pancreatic cancer, malignant tumors of other digestive organs, lip malignant tumor, lung cancer, breast cancer, malignant tumors of bone and articular cartilage, skin cancer, mesothelial and soft tissue tumors, malignant tumors of reproductive organs, urinary system tumors, lymphoma, leukemia, etc.
	Infectious diseases: Clostridium perfringens infection (hemorrhagic enteritis, necrotizing enteritis, gas gangrene, food poisoning)
	Sepsis: Escherichia coli sepsis, streptococcal sepsis, Listeria sepsis, meningococcal septicemia, Candida sepsis, enterogenous infection, abdominal abscess, anastomotic fistula
High-risk	Intestinal ischemia/necrosis: Mesenteric vascular embolism, vascular spasms, aneurysm formation, bowel obstruction, intestinal volvulus