Immune activation induced by dysregulated lipid metabolism in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes

Table 1 Representative lipid-lowering agents effects on inflammatory and immunomodulatory biomarkers

Lipid-lowering ingredient	Lipid-modifying	Inflammation and immunomodulation
Curcumin-piperine[119]	TG (decrease)	Serum CRP (decrease)
Pan-PPAR agonist (lanifibranor)[120]	TG (decrease); LDL-C (decrease); apolipoprotein A1 (decrease); HDL (increase)	CRP (decrease)
Aqueous extract of Cichorium intybus seeds[121]	TG (decrease)	Glutathione catalase (decrease); superoxide dismutase (decrease); malondialdehyde (decrease); adiponectin (decrease); TNF-α (decrease); IL-1β (decrease)
Aqueous extract of Terminalia chebula[122]	TG (decrease); LDL-C (decrease); TC (decrease); VLDL-C (decrease); HDL (increase)	NO (decrease); GSH (decrease); MDA (decrease); hsCRP (decrease)
Rutin flavonoid supplement[123]	TG (decrease); LDL-C (decrease); TC (decrease); HDL (increase)	MDA (decrease); IL-6 (decrease)
L-citrulline supplementation[124]	TG (decrease); HDL (increase)	TNF-α (decrease); hs-CRP (decrease)
Nano-curcumin[125]	Lipoprotein (a) (decrease)	hs-CRP (decrease)
Ellagic acid[126]	TG (decrease); LDL-C (decrease); TC (decrease)	MDA (decrease); CRP (decrease); TNF-α (decrease); IL-6 (decrease); TAC (increase); GPx (increase); SOD (increase)
GLP1RA (exenatide)[127]	TG (decrease); HDL (increase)	CRP (decrease); IL-6 (decrease); TNF-α (decrease)
GLP1RA (orforglipron)[128]	TG (decrease); LDL-C (decrease); ApoB (decrease); ApoC3 (decrease)	hs-CRP (decrease)
Rosuvastatin/ezetimibe[129]	LDL-C (decrease)	Senescent CD8+ T cells (decrease); Treg (decrease); Naive to memory CD8+ T cell (increase)

PPAR: Peroxisome proliferators-activated receptor; GLP1RA: Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist; TG: Triglycerides; LDL-C: Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; TC: Total cholesterol; HDL: High-density lipoprotein; VLDL-C: Very low density lipoprotein cholesterol; ApoB: Apolipoprotein B; ApoC3: Apolipoprotein C3; CRP: C-reactive protein; IL: Interleukin; TNF: Tumor necrosis factor; NO: Nitric oxide; GSH: Glutathione; MDA: Malondialdehyde; hsCRP: Hypersensitive C-reactive protein; TAC: Total antioxidant capacity; GPx: Glutathione peroxidase; SOD: Superoxide dismutase; CD: Cluster of differentiation; Treg: Regulatory T cell.