Wang Z, Deng MQ, Guo LX, Pan Q. Postprandial C-peptide is more relevant to hemoglobin A1c levels and diabetic microvascular complications than fasting C-peptide in type 2 diabetes. World J Diabetes 2025; 16(9): 109414 [DOI: 10.4239/wjd.v16.i9.109414]
Corresponding Author of This Article
Qi Pan, Professor, Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Hospital, National Center of Gerontology, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 1 Dahua Road, Dongcheng District, Beijing 100730, China. panqi621@126.com
Research Domain of This Article
Endocrinology & Metabolism
Article-Type of This Article
Observational Study
Open-Access Policy of This Article
This article is an open-access article which was selected by an in-house editor and fully peer-reviewed by external reviewers. It is distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited and the use is non-commercial. See: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/
Zheng Wang, Ming-Qun Deng, Li-Xin Guo, Qi Pan, Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Hospital, National Center of Gerontology, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100730, China
Zheng Wang, Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Dongcheng District First People's Hospital, Beijing 100075, China
Author contributions: Wang Z was responsible for collecting clinical data, organizing, and analyzing the data; Deng MQ was responsible for data analysis and drafting the initial manuscript; Wang Z and Deng MQ have made crucial and indispensable contributions towards the completion of the project and thus qualified as the co-first authors of the paper; Guo LX and Pan Q were responsible for reviewing and revising the entire manuscript; all authors have read and approved the final version to be published.
Supported by National High Level Hospital Clinical Research Funding, No. BJ-2022-145; and China Endocrinology and Metabolism Young Scientific Talent Research Project, No. 2021-N-03.
Institutional review board statement: The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board and Ethics Committee of Beijing Hospital. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.
Informed consent statement: A waiver of informed consent was applied for and granted by the Ethics Committee.
Conflict-of-interest statement: All authors declare no conflict of interest.
STROBE statement: The authors have read the STROBE Statement—checklist of items, and the manuscript was prepared and revised according to the STROBE Statement—checklist of items.
Data sharing statement: All original data available from the corresponding author at panqi621@126.com.
Open Access: This article is an open-access article that was selected by an in-house editor and fully peer-reviewed by external reviewers. It is distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited and the use is non-commercial. See: https://creativecommons.org/Licenses/by-nc/4.0/
Corresponding author: Qi Pan, Professor, Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Hospital, National Center of Gerontology, Institute of Geriatric Medicine, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, No. 1 Dahua Road, Dongcheng District, Beijing 100730, China. panqi621@126.com
Received: May 12, 2025 Revised: June 19, 2025 Accepted: July 28, 2025 Published online: September 15, 2025 Processing time: 124 Days and 19.7 Hours
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), driven by insulin resistance and β cell dysfunction, necessitates reliable assessment of β cell function. C-peptide (CP) measurement, a stable marker of endogenous insulin secretion, is useful for this clinically as it avoids interference from exogenous insulin. While fasting CP (FCP) and postprandial CP (PCP), along with glucose-adjusted indices and ratios, such as FCP/fasting plasma glucose (FPG), 2 hours postprandial CP (2hCP)/postprandial blood glucose (PBG) and CP ratio, are used, their comparative efficacy in reflecting β cell function remains unclear. Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), a key glycemic control indicator, theoretically links β cell function to complications, but limited studies have explored the associations between diverse CP indices, HbA1c, and diabetic microvascular complications.
AIM
To investigate the relationships between different CP indices and HbA1c as well as diabetic microvascular complications in T2DM.
METHODS
T2DM patients admitted to Department of Endocrinology at Beijing Hospital between July 1, 2021 and December 31, 2021 were included in the study. Clinical and laboratory data were collected, including CP levels, glucose levels, HbA1c levels and diabetic microvascular complications. Statistical analysis was performed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 24.0.
RESULTS
A total of 453 patients were included in the final analysis. Adjusted by confounding factors, CP ratio and CP/blood glucose (BG) ratio were not relevant to HbA1c, but FCP, 2hCP, delta CP, FCP/FPG, 2hCP/PBG and delta CP/BG were still negatively correlated to HbA1c, of which 2hCP/PBG showed the strongest negative correlation (r = -0.485,P < 0.001). Independent of HbA1c and other confounding factors, 2hCP, 2hCP/PBG, delta CP and delta CP/BG were protective factors of diabetic retinopathy while 2hCP, delta CP and FCP/FPG were protective factors of diabetic peripheral neuropathy.
CONCLUSION
This study indicates that higher levels of CP indices suggest better glucose control and a lower prevalence of diabetic microvascular complications, and PCP indices, particularly 2hCP/PBG, were more relevant to HbA1c and diabetic microvascular complications than FCP indices. These results suggest CP-related indices could be useful biomarkers for diabetes management, warranting further research.
Core Tip: This study highlights postprandial C-peptide, particularly 2 hours postprandial C-peptide (2hCP)/postprandial blood glucose (PBG), as the strongest predictor of hemoglobin A1c in type 2 diabetes mellitus, surpassing fasting C-peptide. Higher C-peptide (CP) levels correlate with improved glycemic control. Notably, 2hCP independently reduces the risk of diabetic retinopathy and diabetic peri-neuropathy, suggesting that β cell function preservation benefits both glucose management and complications. These findings advocate prioritizing stimulated CP assessments and exploring 2hCP/PBG as a biomarker for tailored diabetes therapies.
Citation: Wang Z, Deng MQ, Guo LX, Pan Q. Postprandial C-peptide is more relevant to hemoglobin A1c levels and diabetic microvascular complications than fasting C-peptide in type 2 diabetes. World J Diabetes 2025; 16(9): 109414
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) accounts for 90%–95% of all diabetes and is characterized by insulin resistance, and may be associated with β cell dysfunction[1]. This highlights the importance of assessing β cell function in clinical settings for the appropriate management of patients with T2DM. C-peptide (CP) is a polypeptide connecting the A and B chains of insulin molecule, and is secreted from the β cells of islets when proinsulin is cleaved into insulin and CP[2]. Although acute insulin response is the gold standard for assessment of β cell function[3], it is not practical for routine clinical use. The homeostasis model assessment of β cell function is an index of insulin secretory function derived from fasting plasma glucose (FPG) and insulin concentrations[4], which is widely used in epidemiologic studies; however, not in clinical settings as it involves a relatively complicated calculation method. Insulin level and CP level are widely used markers of β cell function in clinical settings. Unlike insulin, CP is not extracted by the liver and other organs, and its longer half-life in the bloodstream provides a more accurate reflection of endogenous insulin production. Furthermore, CP levels can be measured in patients receiving insulin therapy without interference by exogenous insulin, making it a reliable marker of endogenous insulin secretion in patients with diabetes. Clinically, both fasting CP (FCP) and postprandial CP (PCP) are evaluated to assess β cell function, commonly accompanied by levels of synchronized blood glucose (BG), namely FPG and postprandial BG (PBG)[5]. Various CP-related indices are used, including the absolute value of FCP or PCP, the ratio of PCP to FCP (CP ratio)[6], the PCP minus FCP (delta CP) and FCP or PCP adjusted by glucose (FCP/FPG and PCP/PBG)[7], without knowledge of which one cannot understand accurate assessment of β cell function. Glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) is used to evaluate a T2DM patient's level of glucose control. It shows an average of the BG level over the past 90 days in a patient and is often represented in a percentage form. The β cell function in T2DM affects glucose control and diabetic complications. In a recent study with a small sample size, it was suggested that FCP and HbA1c had a significant correlation, and it was concluded that CP would be a good marker to assess the degree of function of β cells[8]. However, a few studies have compared the relationships between different CP-related indices and glucose control and diabetic complications to propose the most clinically helpful CP-related index. In a recent small study aimed at investigating the relationship between postprandial CP-glucose ratio, β cell function and treatment success in T2DM, the researchers reported that different CP-related indices had various correlations with HbA1c[9], which requires further confirmation. The present study aims to investigate relationships between different CP-related indices and HbA1c as well as diabetic microvascular complications in a relatively large number of participants.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
In this study, we included patients with T2DM who were admitted to the Department of Endocrinology at Beijing Hospital between July 1, 2021 and December 31, 2021. The following are the entry criteria for participant inclusion in the study: (1) Participants must be 18 years or older; and (2) Participants must have a confirmed diagnosis of T2DM according to the World Health Organization 1999 diagnostic criteria for diabetes. T2DM patients with a recent history of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) or hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state within the last three months and those with severe liver dysfunction [defined as alanine transaminase (ALT) ≥ 120 U/L] or renal dysfunction (defined as estimated glomerular filtration rate ≤ 60 mL/minute/1.73 m²) were excluded, as CP is primarily metabolized in the kidneys. Additionally, patients without HbA1c, FCP, or 2 hours postprandial CP (2hCP) results were also excluded from the analysis. We reviewed both electronic and handwritten medical records, and conducted telephone interviews when required information was missing. We recorded age, duration of diabetes, sex, body mass index (BMI), and diabetes treatment used by the patients. Laboratory results, including CP, HbA1c, lipid parameters, serum creatinine (Cr), and transaminase, were all extracted. FCP was measured after an 8-12 hour fast, and 2hCP was examined 2 hours after a standard breakfast consisting of 2 steamed buns. Both FCP and 2hCP were detected by chemiluminescence immunoassay using the Siemens analyzer ADVIA Centaur XP. HbA1c was measured by high-performance liquid chromatography combined with affinity chromatography using the Premier Hb9210. Delta CP was calculated as 2hCP minus FCP, while the CP ratio (2hCP/FCP) was obtained from 2hCP divided by FCP. FCP/FPG was defined as FCP divided by FPG tested simultaneously, namely FCP adjusted by FPG, and similarly, 2hCP/PBG was defined as 2hCP divided by PBG tested simultaneously. Delta CP/BG was calculated as 2hCP/PBG minus FCP/FPG, while the CP/BG ratio was obtained from 2hCP/PBG divided by FCP/FBG. Information on diabetic microvascular complications including diabetic retinopathy (DR), diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) and diabetic kidney disease (DKD) were also extracted from medical records.
Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 24.0 (SPSS, Inc.). Descriptive statistics are presented as mean ± SD or median (interquartile ranges) and percentages (%). The Student's t-test was used for normally distributed continuous variables, while the Mann-Whitney U test was used for non-parametric variables. Pearson correlation or Spearman correlation was used, as appropriate. Partial correlation analysis was also used to analyze correlations between variables. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to investigate risk factors of protective factors. A P value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
RESULTS
A total of 491 adult T2DM patients were admitted to the Department of Endocrinology between July 1, 2021 and December 31, 2021, and 453 T2DM patients were included in the final analysis. A total of 38 adult T2DM patients were excluded due to DKA in the recent 3 months, severe liver dysfunction, severe renal dysfunction, and missing HbA1c or CP-related results (Figure 1). The median age of the analyzed patients was 62 years; the median diabetes duration was 12 years; and the median HbA1c was 8.8%. Male patients accounted for 60.3% and female patients accounted for 39.7%. The median FCP was 306.3 pmol/L, and the median 2hCP was 858.6 pmol/L. More than half of the patients were treated with insulin (59.2%) (Table 1). All CP-related indices were not correlated with age, but negatively correlated with disease duration and HbA1c (Figure 2). HbA1c was correlated with FBG, PBG, total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), Cr and all CP-related indices, but was not correlated with age, disease duration and BMI (Supplementary Table 1). Of all the CP-related indices, only FCP/FPG was relevant to Cr (Figure 2), we adjusted TC and LDL-C in partial correlation analysis between CP-related indices and HbA1c. After adjusting TC and LDL-C, HbA1c was not correlated with either CP ratio or CP/BG ratio, but was correlated with FCP, 2hCP, delta CP, FCP/FPG, 2hCP/PBG, and delta CP/BG, and the correlation with 2hCP/PBG was the strongest of all (r = -0.485, P < 0.001) (Table 2).
Clinical variables were compared between patients with and without microvascular complications (Supplementary Tables 2-4). Using diabetic microvascular complications (DR, DPN, DKD) as the dependent variable and incorporating CP and HbA1c as independent variables in a multiple logistic regression, the results showed that even when considering the influence of HbA1c, CP remained a significant factor affecting the risk of diabetic microvascular complications DR and DPN. CP ratio and CP/BG ratio were not relevant to DR. Before adjustment, FCP and FCP/FPG were independent protective factors of DR (model 1) but not after adjustment (models 2 and 3). Independent of Cr, ALT and HbA1c, 2hCP, 2hCP/PBG, delta CP and delta CP/BG were protective factors of DR (Table 3). CP ratio and CP/BG ratio were not relevant to DPN. Before adjustment, FCP, delta CP/BG and 2hCP/PBG were independent protective factors of DPN (model 1) but not after adjustment (models 2 and 3). The 2hCP, delta CP and FCP/FPG were still protective factors of DPN after adjustment for age, disease duration, ALT and HbA1c (Table 4). FCP, 2hCP, delta CP, CP ratio, FCP/FPG and CP/BG ratio were not relevant to DKD. Independent of TG, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, Cr and uric acid, 2hCP/PBG was a protective factor of DKD (model 2), but not independent of HbA1c (model 3). Delta CP/BG was also not an independent protective factor of DKD after adjustment (models 2 and 3) (Table 5).
Table 3 Logistic regression of diabetic retinopathy.
The basic pathophysiology of T2DM involves dysfunction of islet β cell function and insulin resistance. Accurate evaluation of β cell function is very important for developing an individualized treatment plan. It can help understand progress of the disease and determine if adjustments to the treatment plan are needed in a timely manner. Compared with Western populations, patients with T2DM in Asian populations such as Chinese exhibit lower β cell function and more prevalent insulin deficiency[10]. Given these pathophysiological characteristics, conducting research on islet β cell function in relation to glycemic control and diabetic complications among Asian populations with T2DM is important. Such research will help determine personalized management strategies suitable for Asian individuals with T2DM. Various indices of CP levels are used to assess β cell function in clinical practice, such as FCP, 2hCP, CP ratio, and CPs adjusted by glucose levels. However, these indices still lack sufficient validation. Which CP-related index reflects β cell function best and which one predicts glucose control, diabetic complications or treatment response best in T2DM remain to be answered.
This study is the first to examine and compare the relationship between HbA1c and different CP-related indices, and the relationships between diabetic microvascular complications and different CP-related indices were also investigated. CP levels reflect more than just the degree of insulin resistance. Historically regarded as biologically inert, accumulating evidence now demonstrates that level of CP may have disease-modifying properties. Although insulin resistance plays an important role in T2DM, and patients with more severe insulin resistance are supposed to have higher levels of CP, our results showed that in adult T2DM inpatients, lower HbA1c values were associated with higher levels of CP-related indices, indicating the importance of CP-related indices in glucose management, and strategies to reserve β cell dysfunction may contribute to glucose improvement. When comparing 2hCP and FCP, our study showed that 2hCP had a stronger association with HbA1c than FCP, suggesting that PCP might have a greater impact on HbA1c than basal CP levels in T2DM. The importance placed on stimulated CP levels in type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) arises from the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) study findings, which revealed a positive correlation between the stimulated CP response at baseline in the intensive therapy group and enhanced glycemic control[11,12]. Although fasting or non-fasting random CP measurements are more convenient, cost-effective, and feasible to conduct in a clinical setting, their capacity to assess β cell function and predict HbA1c levels is considerably restricted. PCP seems to play a more important role in assessing β cell dysfunction and HbA1c levels.
In terms of CP adjusted by glucose, we found that CP adjusted by synchronous glucose levels exhibited better correlations with HbA1c than CP itself. Our study showed that 2hCP/PBG was the most relevant index for HbA1c compared with the other CP-related indices. A relatively low level of CP with a low glucose level does not necessarily indicate poor β cell function. Other studies have demonstrated that the postprandial CP-to-glucose ratio (PCGR), also known as 1.5hCP/PG, is significantly associated with glycemic control and is a useful index indicator of β cell function[9,13]. Previous studies have also suggested that the PCGR better reflects maximum β cell secretory capacity than the fasting ratio in assessing β cell function[14]. Thus, 2hCP/PBG might reflect β cell function better than the other CP-related indices, irrespective of the strongest correlation with HbA1c shown in our study, or its power to reflect maximum β cell secretory capacity in other studies. Understanding the association of CP responsiveness to a standard meal with HbA1c could provide insights into the relationship between β cell function and glycemic control, and potentially lead to approaches for individualized treatment paradigms. Several studies have investigated whether CP could predict the response to different antidiabetic therapies and found that a higher 2hCP/FCP increases the likelihood of success with basal insulin-supported oral antidiabetic drug(s) therapy[15]. The basal premeal dose ratio of T2DM with different 2hCP/FCP levels differs during intensive insulin pump therapy[6]. Although 2hCP/FCP is widely used in both clinical practice and research, our study suggested that 2hCP adjusted by glucose (namely, 2hCP/PBG) is more closely related to HbA1c than the ratio (CP ratio, namely 2hCP/FCP), and further studies are needed to compare the power of different CP indices in predicting response to antidiabetic treatment, especially 2hCP/PBG.
In T1DM, stimulated (90 minutes following ingestion of a mixed meal) CP levels at entry in the DCCT study were related to measures of DR and nephropathy[16]. A recent study with a limited sample size found that postprandial glucose/CP can be employed as a crucial indicator to predict the risk of disease progression in diabetic nephropathy patients[17]. However, little is known regarding whether CP relates to diabetic microvascular complications in T2DM. Our study found that independent of HbA1c, 2hCP was still a protective factor for DR and DPN, while FCP did not show the same effect. As revealed in our study, a correlation was observed between lower CP values and suboptimal glycemic control, leading to elevated HbA1c levels. CP levels in diabetes have been linked to complications through glycemic mechanisms, but it is also possible that CP exerts direct molecular effects. In vitro studies demonstrated that higher CP is associated with some protection against the formation of reactive oxygen species in endothelial cells under hyperglycemic conditions[18,19]. Additionally, high CP has been observed to downregulate the expression of various hyperglycemia-induced adhesion molecules, such as vascular cellular adhesion molecule 1. This downregulation leads to a reduction in leukocyte adhesion to endothelial cell walls, thereby preventing the initial stages of atherosclerotic plaque formation[20]. Further studies are needed to clarify the relationship between CP levels and diabetic microvascular complications.
This study suggests that 2hCP levels may hold greater clinical value than FCP levels. However, obtaining reliable 2hCP measurements can be challenging in clinical practice. Future research should therefore evaluate whether alternative, more feasible CP time points (such as 30 minutes) could serve as effective substitutes for the 2-hour measurement. While the primary role of CP remains as an indicator for assessing pancreatic β cell function, its significance extends far beyond this application. As demonstrated in the present study, CP exhibits an association with diabetic microvascular complications in T2DM that is independent of HbA1c levels; however, the underlying mechanisms remain unelucidated. Beyond reflecting insulin resistance and insulin deficiency, CP may possess additional physiological functions—as suggested by recent studies indicating its antioxidant action[21]. Further research is warranted to clarify whether C-peptide also acts as a potential antioxidant hormone in diabetic microvascular complications.
However, this study has some limitations. Firstly, it was an observational study conducted in a single center with a sample size that, while much larger than other similar studies[22], was not very large, and only inpatients were included, limiting its generalizability to other patients. Secondly, it was a retrospective analysis, which could not definitively determine the causal relationship between CP-related indices and HbA1c levels or diabetic microvascular complications, and the dynamic relationship between CP-related indices and HbA1c also could not be fully explored. Thirdly, the potential influence of hypoglycemic medications and lifestyle factors (diet, sleep and exercise) on BG levels was not ruled out in our study, which could potentially interfere in the relationship between CP-related indices and HbA1c. Due to insufficient available clinical data, this study failed to examine the relationship between CP and diabetic macrovascular complications (e.g., cardiovascular disease). Further investigations, especially well-designed prospective studies, are warranted to address this issue.
CONCLUSION
The present study highlights the crucial significance of CP indices in assessing β cell function and their influence on glycemic control and diabetic microvascular complications in patients with diabetes. The findings indicate that higher CP levels are indicative of better glucose regulation in hospitalized T2DM patients. Postprandial CP was more relevant to HbA1c than fasting CP. Of all the CP indices evaluated, 2hCP/PBG appears to be the strongest predictor of HbA1c levels. Furthermore, regardless of HbA1c, 2hCP is an independent risk factor for DR and DPN in T2DM. These results provide valuable insights into the utility of CP-related indices as potential biomarkers for diabetes management and emphasize the need for further investigations in this field.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Jie Dong for her support in statistical analysis.
Footnotes
Provenance and peer review: Unsolicited article; Externally peer reviewed.
Peer-review model: Single blind
Specialty type: Endocrinology and metabolism
Country of origin: China
Peer-review report’s classification
Scientific Quality: Grade A, Grade B, Grade B, Grade B, Grade C
Novelty: Grade B, Grade B, Grade B, Grade C
Creativity or Innovation: Grade B, Grade B, Grade B, Grade C
Scientific Significance: Grade A, Grade B, Grade B, Grade C
P-Reviewer: Aktas G, PhD, Professor, Türkiye; Gezh SAS, PhD, Lecturer, Iraq; Pappachan JM, MD, Professor, United Kingdom; Wang XH, MD, China S-Editor: Luo ML L-Editor: A P-Editor: Xu ZH
ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, Bannuru RR, Brown FM, Bruemmer D, Collins BS, Hilliard ME, Isaacs D, Johnson EL, Kahan S, Khunti K, Leon J, Lyons SK, Perry ML, Prahalad P, Pratley RE, Seley JJ, Stanton RC, Gabbay RA; on behalf of the American Diabetes Association. 2. Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes: Standards of Care in Diabetes-2023.Diabetes Care. 2023;46:S19-S40.
[RCA] [PubMed] [DOI] [Full Text][Cited by in Crossref: 857][Cited by in RCA: 1340][Article Influence: 670.0][Reference Citation Analysis (70)]
Kocanoğlu A, Oral A, Vural Keskinler M, Sadeçolak M, Oğuz A. The relationship between postprandial C peptide-glucose ratio, beta-cell function and treatment success in type 2 diabetes mellitus.D J Med Sci. 2021;7:133-140.
[PubMed] [DOI] [Full Text]
Palmer JP, Fleming GA, Greenbaum CJ, Herold KC, Jansa LD, Kolb H, Lachin JM, Polonsky KS, Pozzilli P, Skyler JS, Steffes MW. C-peptide is the appropriate outcome measure for type 1 diabetes clinical trials to preserve beta-cell function: report of an ADA workshop, 21-22 October 2001.Diabetes. 2004;53:250-264.
[RCA] [PubMed] [DOI] [Full Text][Cited by in Crossref: 343][Cited by in RCA: 380][Article Influence: 18.1][Reference Citation Analysis (0)]
Saisho Y, Kou K, Tanaka K, Abe T, Shimada A, Kawai T, Itoh H. Association between beta cell function and future glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes.Endocr J. 2013;60:517-523.
[PubMed] [DOI]
Mu PW, Liu DZ, Lin Y, Liu D, Zhang F, Zhang YJ, Lin S, Wang LQ, Wang MM, Shu J, Zeng LY, Chen YM. The Postprandial-to-Fasting Serum C-Peptide Ratio is a Predictor of Response to Basal Insulin-Supported Oral Antidiabetic Drug(s) Therapy: A Retrospective Analysis.Diabetes Ther. 2018;9:963-971.
[RCA] [PubMed] [DOI] [Full Text] [Full Text (PDF)][Cited by in RCA: 4][Reference Citation Analysis (0)]
Zaki HY, Abdille AA, Abdalla BE. Level of Fasting C-Peptide as a Predictor of β-Cell Function in Sudanese Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.J Biosci Med. 2019;7:115-123.
[PubMed] [DOI] [Full Text]
