Mechanisms of action of natural products on type 2 diabetes

Figure 1 Mechanism of natural products in promoting the regeneration and inhibiting the apoptosis of islet β cells. The letters inside the black squares refer to natural products. Inhibitory effects are shown by black pathways. A: Alpha-mangostin; C: Caffeic acid; D: Dioscorea batatas extract; G: Gallic acid; Ge: Genistein; Gen: Geniposide; H: Hesperidin; K: Kaempferol; M: Mulberry anthocyanin extract; P: Paeoniflorin; Pu: Puerarin; Q: Quercetin; R: Resveratrol; FFA: Free fatty acids; FOXO: Forkhead box class O; JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinase; mTOR: Mammalian target of rapamycin; NF-κB: Nuclear factor-kappa B; NO: Nitric oxide; PI3K: Phosphoinositide 3-kinase; ROS/RNS: Reactive oxygen/nitrogen species.

Figure 2 The mechanism of natural products suppresses insulin resistance. The letters inside the black squares refer to natural products. A: Alpha-mangostin; B: Berberine; Bu: Butein; C: Caffeic acid; Cu: Curcumin; Cy: Cyanidin-3-glucoside; D: Dioscorea batatas extract; G: Gallic acid; Ge: Genistein; Gen: Geniposide; H: Hesperidin; I: Icarrin; K: Kaempferol; L: Leteolin; M: Mulberry anthocyanin extract; P: Paeoniflorin; Pu: Puerarin; Q: Quercetin; R: Resveratrol; CHOP: CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein homologous protein; ER stress: Endoplasmic reticulum stress; FFA: Free fatty acids; FOXO: Forkhead box class O; GFR: Growth factor receptor; GR: Growth factor; IKK: Inhibitor of nuclear factor-kappa B kinase; IL-1β: Interleukin 1β; IL-1: Interleukin 1; iNOS: Inducible nitric oxide synthase; IRAK: Interleukin 1 receptor-associated kinase; JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinase; mTOR: Mammalian target of rapamycin; NF-κB: Nuclear factor-kappa B; NO: Nitric oxide; PI3K: Phosphoinositide 3-kinase; ROS/RNS: Reactive oxygen/nitrogen species; STAT: Signal transducer and activator of transcription; STAT1: Signal transducer and activator of transcription 1; STAT3: Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha; TNFR: Tumor necrosis factor receptor.

Figure 3 Mechanisms of natural products for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. The letters inside the black squares refer to nature products. Inhibitory effects were shown by black pathways. A: Alpha-mangostin; B: Berberine; Bu: Butein; C: Caffeic acid; Cu: Curcumin; Cy: Cyanidin-3-glucoside; D: Dioscorea batatas extract; G: Gallic acid; Ge: Genistein; Gen: Geniposide; H: Hesperidin; I: Icarrin; K: Kaempferol; L: Leteolin; M: Mulberry anthocyanin extract; P: Paeoniflorin; Pu: Puerarin; Q: Quercetin; R: Resveratrol; Akt: serine/threoninekinase; AGE: Advanced glycation end products; AP-1: Activator protien-1; Bad: Bcl2 associated death promoter; Bax: BCL2-Associated X; Bcl-2: B-cell lymphoma-2; Cdk4: Cyclin dependent kinase 4; CHOP: CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein homologous protein; eIF4G: Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4G; ER stress: Endoplasmic reticulum stress; FFA: Free fatty acids; FOXO: Forkhead box class O; GFR: Growth factor receptor; GR: Growth factor; IkBa: Inhibitory subunit of NF Kappa B Alpha; IKK: Inhibitor of nuclear factor-kappa B kinase; IL-1β: Interleukin 1β; IL-1: Interleukin 1; iNOS: Inducible nitric oxide synthase; IRAK: Interleukin 1 receptor-associated kinase; JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinase; mTOR: Mammalian target of rapamycin; NF-κB: Nuclear factor-kappa B; NO: Nitric oxide; PI3K: Phosphoinositide 3-kinase; ROS/RNS: Reactive oxygen/nitrogen species; STAT: Signal transducer and activator of transcription; STAT1: Signal transducer and activator of transcription 1; STAT3: Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha; TNFR: Tumor necrosis factor receptor.