Review
Copyright ©The Author(s) 2022.
World J Gastrointest Oncol. Sep 15, 2022; 14(9): 1637-1653
Published online Sep 15, 2022. doi: 10.4251/wjgo.v14.i9.1637
Table 1 Summary of the literature supporting an oncogenic role of caldesmon

Cell/cancer type
Findings
Research method
Ref.
1Colorectal cancerL-CaD was expressed in colorectal cancer and liver metastasis, compared with normal tissue. L-CaD was associated with a poor response to chemotherapy. L-CaD was associated with resistance to 5-Fu treatment and caused an increase in p21 and cleaved-PARP and a decrease in the expression of NF-κB and p-mTOR in vitroClinical, functionalKim et al[39], 2012
2Colon, bladder, and prostateCALD1 may indicate cancer-related splicing events. CALD1 was identified as a tumor-specific splicing variant in colon and urinary bladder cancer tissue samplesBioinformatics, and experimentalThorsen et al[40], 2008
3Colorectal cancerCALD1 was upregulated and associated with M2 macrophage infiltration, angiogenesis, and TGF-β in stage III/IV mismatch-proficient colorectal cancer. High expression of CALD1 was significantly correlated with transendothelial migration. Cancer cell proliferation, invasion, and migration abilities were suppressed after reducing CALD1 expression in vitroClinical, bioinformatics, functionalZheng et al[41], 2021
4Colorectal cancer-early-onsetCALD overexpressed in early-onset colorectal cancerBioinformatics, in silico, clinicalZhao et al[42], 2019
5Rectal cancerCALD1 overexpressed in nonresponders to chemotherapyClinicalChauvin et al[43], 2018
6Colorectal cancerNovel l-CaD isoforms produced by alternative splicing of CALD1 played a role in colorectal cancer metastasisBioinformatics, in silicoLian et al[44], 2020
7Gastric cancerCALD1 is a novel target of TEA domain family member 4 that is involved in cell proliferation and migrationBioinformatics, in silicoLim et al[45], 2014
8Gastric cancerHigh expression of CALD1 is associated with poor overall survival and with immune infiltration in gastric cancerBioinformatics, in silicoLiu et al[46], 2021
9Breast cancer, study of ERSilencing of ER in MCF7 cells upregulated CALD1, concomitantly with the acquisition of a new phenotype that encompasses increased growth rates, loss of cell-to-cell adhesion and a redistribution of the cytoskeletal components, resulting in increased motilityFunctional analysis, basic studyAl Saleh et al[47], 2011
10Breast cancer-ER-positiveANXA1 and CALD1 were associated with downregulation of ER via activation of NF-κB signaling, which blocks apoptosis and allows cancer cells to become independent of estrogen. ANXA1 and CALD1 proteins are independent markers for tamoxifen therapy outcome (resistance) and are associated with fast tumor progressionClinical, association, pathway analysisDe Marchi et al[48], 2016
11Normal mouse mammary cellsThe expression level and phosphorylation state of CaD increase as a function of time after induction of EMT by TGF-β1, and these changes in CaD correlate with increased focal adhesion number and size and increased cell contractilityFunctional analysis, basic studyNalluri et al[49], 2018
12Bladder cancerL-CaD overexpression in primary nonmuscle invasive bladder cancer is significantly associated with tumor progression. L-CaD is implicated in increased cell motility and invasive characteristics through morphological changes in bladder cancer cellsClinical, functionalLee et al[50], 2015
13Bladder cancerCaD was identified as one of the proteins with significant differential expression between bladder cancer tissue and normal urothelial tissue, using antibody microarray profiling of tissue samplesClinicalLee et al[51], 2015
14Bladder cancerLow CALD1 in tumor is associated with a good prognosisBioinformatics, in silico Liu et al[52], 2019
15Bladder cancerCALD1 was correlated with aggressive features and poor overall survival. CALD1 promotes tumor cell growth, migration, invasion, and the cell cycle; it inhibits tumor cell apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. CALD1 expression was positively correlated with JAK/STAT activation resulting in PD-L1 overexpressionClinical, functionalLi et al[53], 2021
16Bladder cancerCALD1 was overexpressed in CAFs, as well as macrophages and T cells in the microenvironment of bladder tumors and was associated with oncogenic featuresBioinformatics, functionalDu et al[54], 2021
17Bladder cancerMIR100HG inhibits the expression of miR-142-5p, resulting in the upregulation of CALD1 and acquisition of aggressive features in bladder cancerClinical, bioinformatics, functionalZhang et al[55], 2021
18Lung cancerCaD is overexpressed in brain metastases of lung cancerClinical, expressionZhang et al[56], 2014
19NSCLCActivation of the anaphase-promoting complex by p53 induces a state of dormancy in NSCLC cells after 5-Fu. Subsequently, EMT and CaD upregulation were associated with dormant cancer stem cellsExperimental, functionalDai et al[57], 2016
20Squamous cell carcinoma of oral cavityCaD expression is associated with a poor prognosis in patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma. CaD increased invasion and migration and was elevated in patients’ serumClinical, functionalChang et al[58], 2013
21Nasopharyngeal carcinomaBone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells secreted nitric oxide in the nasopharyngeal carcinoma tumor environment, which resulted in translocation of CaD to the podosome in a Ca2+/calmodulin manner in tumor cells and promotion of their invasion and metastatic abilityFunctionalZhang et al[59], 2014
22GliomaCALD1 was upregulated in neoplastic cells. CALD1 was associated with a progressive vessel architecture. CALD1 may serve as marker of glioma progressionClinical, functionalCheng et al[60], 2021
23Glioma, patients’ serumThe serum level of l-CaD was significantly higher in the group of glioma patients as compared to any of the other brain tumor groupsClinicalZheng et al[61], 2005
24Glioma-associated blood vesselsSplicing variants of CALD1 are differentially expressed in glioma neovascularization versus normal brain microvasculature. The mis-splicing of CALD1 correlated with the breakdown of tight junctions among vascular endothelial cellsExpression, functionalZheng et al[62], 2004
25Endothelial cellsL-CaD is involved in the migration of endothelial cells and/or endothelial progenitor cells into human neoplasms (gliomas, breast cancers, renal cell carcinomas) where they contribute to tumor angiogenesisExpression, functionalZheng et al[63], 2007
26Kidney epithelial cells, mouse mammary cellsCaD is activated and upregulated upon TGF-β induction of EMT. CALD1 overexpression is a key component in TGF-β-driven EMTFunctionalMorita et al[64], 2007
27Not specifiedCaD maintains newly polymerized actin in a distinct state that has a higher affinity for the Arp2/3 complexFunctionalJensen et al[65], 2012
Table 2 Summary of the literature supporting a tumor suppressor role of caldesmon

Cell/cancer type
Findings
Research method
Ref.
1Colorectal cancerAn alternatively spliced form of CALD1 was decreased in tissues from colorectal tumor as compared to adjacent normal tissuesBioinformatics, in silicoLiu et al[66], 2018
2Gastric cancerCaD is decreased in metastasis-derived gastric cancer cell lines. Knockdown of CaD resulted in an increase in cell migration and invasionProteomics, clinical, functionalHou et al[67], 2013
3Breast, colorectal, and thyroid cancer cellsThe ectopic expression of l-CaD reduced the number of podosomes/invadopodia and suppressed cell invasionBasic, functionalYoshio et al[68], 2007
4Breast cancer, and rat aorta cell linesPKGI-β enhances breast cancer cell motility and invasive capacity by phosphorylating CaD. Knockdown of endogenous CaD in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells had pro-migratory and pro-invasive effectsBasic, functionalSchwappacher et al[69], 2013
5Prostate cancerLeupaxin phosphorylates CaD leading to its downregulation, and this downregulation of CaD increased migration and invasion of prostate cancer cellsBasic experimentalDierks et al[70], 2015
6Vascular smooth muscle cells and NIH 3T3 fibroblast cellsCaD upregulation mediates p53 suppression of Src-induced podosome and rosette formation and cellular invasiveness. The study is based on normal cells and whether or not it applies to malignancy remains to be clarifiedBasic, functionalMukhopadhyay et al[71], 2009