Schistosomiasis, a parasitic disease caused by Schistosoma species such as S. haematobium, S. mansoni, and S. japonicum, poses a significant global health burden. The thioredoxin glutathione reductase (TGR) enzyme, crucial for maintaining the parasite's redox balance and preventing oxidative stress, has been identified as a promising target for anti-schistosomal drug development. This study aims to identify potential TGR inhibitors from Azadirachta indica phytochemicals using molecular modeling approaches. We screened 60 compounds derived from A. indica bark and leaves through molecular docking to assess their binding affinity, followed by the evaluation of binding-free energies for the most promising candidates. Drug-likeness and pharmacokinetic properties were assessed, and molecular dynamics simulations were conducted to explore the conformational stability of the protein-ligand complexes. Our findings revealed that several A. indica compounds exhibited significantly lower docking scores (up to -9.669 kcal/mol) compared to the standard drug praziquantel (-4.349 kcal/mol). Notably, Isorhamnetin, Isomargolonone, Nimbaflavone, Quercetin, and Nimbionol demonstrated strong interactions with TGR, although Isorhamnetin showed potential mutagenicity. Further binding free energy calculations and molecular dynamics simulations confirmed the stability of Isomargolonone, Nimbionol, and Quercetin as potential TGR inhibitors. In conclusion, these findings suggest that Isomargolonone, Nimbionol, and Quercetin warrant further experimental validation as promising candidates for anti-schistosomal therapy.

Schistosomiasis is one of the major neglected tropical diseases in Africa, accounting for approximately 90% of the global burden. In Zimbabwe, Schistosoma haematobium and S. mansoni infections are endemic. Although mass drug administration has been carried out among school-aged children, other interventions at the national level remain incomplete. China has established a public health cooperation mechanism with African countries targeting schistosomiasis and other infectious diseases. This study aims to conduct a pilot study to provide a methodological reference for large-scale surveys in similar settings.

This pilot study served as an entry point for China-Africa cooperation in schistosomiasis control. A combination of cross-sectional studies and snail surveys was used. The survey was carried out in 14 villages of Chevakadzi ward in Zimbabwe. Households were selected through simple random sampling for the study. Fecal and urine samples were tested in the laboratory to diagnose schistosomiasis. Meanwhile, a capacity and needs assessment was conducted to understand the current situation of local disease control strategies.

This study is expected to obtain important epidemiological information and indicators regarding the transmission of schistosomiasis at the sub-district level, providing a basis for judging the feasibility and practicality of large-scale China-Zimbabwe cooperation investments. The research results will also offer references for policy-making and the update of prevention and control strategies, contributing to schistosomiasis control in Zimbabwe. However, the study has limitations such as limited funding and difficulties in cross-border drug registration.

Schistosomiasis, a neglected tropical disease caused by parasitic worms of the genus Schistosoma and transmitted through freshwater snails, affects over 200 million people worldwide. Climate change, through rising temperatures, altered rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events, is influencing the distribution and transmission dynamics of schistosomiasis. This scoping review examines the impact of climate change on schistosomiasis transmission and its implications for disease control. This review aims to synthesize current knowledge on the influence of climate variables (temperature, rainfall, water bodies) on snail populations, transmission dynamics, and the shifting geographic range of schistosomiasis. It also explores the potential effects of climate adaptation policies on disease control. The review follows the Arksey and O'Malley framework and PRISMA-ScR guidelines, including studies published from 2000 to 2024. Eligible studies were selected based on empirical data on climate change, schistosomiasis transmission, and snail dynamics. A two-stage study selection process was followed: title/abstract screening and full-text review. Data were extracted on environmental factors, snail population dynamics, transmission patterns, and climate adaptation strategies. Climate change is expected to increase schistosomiasis transmission in endemic regions like Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and South America, while some areas, such as parts of West Africa, may see reduced risk. Emerging hotspots were identified in regions not currently endemic. Climate adaptation policies, such as improved water management and early warning systems, were found effective in reducing transmission. Integrating climate adaptation strategies into schistosomiasis control programs is critical to mitigating the disease's spread, particularly in emerging hotspots and shifting endemic areas.

Schistosomiasis, caused by Schistosoma mansoni, remains a significant public health burden, particularly in endemic regions with limited access to effective treatment. The emergence of resistance to praziquantel necessitates the urgent discovery of novel therapeutic targets. This study explores the potential of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) as inhibitors of the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) and triose phosphate isomerase (TPI) protein-protein interaction (PPI) in S. mansoni, a crucial glycolytic pathway component essential for parasite survival. A machine learning-driven approach was employed to filter 3306 AMPs from the Antimicrobial Peptide Database (APD) based on physicochemical properties and predicted binding affinities. Eighteen peptides were selected based on desirable physicochemical attributes and further subjected to molecular docking using HADDOCK 2.4. The results identified AP02590 (-103.5 ± 2.7 kcal/mol) and AP02754 (-87.8 ± 1.0 kcal/mol) as the most promising inhibitors, exhibiting strong binding affinities and stable complex formation compared to the native GAPDH-TPI complex (-77.8 ± 17.2 kcal/mol). Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations confirmed the stability of these complexes, with lower root mean square deviation (RMSD) values (AP02590: ∼2.5 Å, AP02754: ∼3.0 Å) and reduced root mean square fluctuation (RMSF) of key interacting residues. Radius of gyration (Rg) analysis further indicated compact structural stability. MMGBSA analysis validated these findings, showing favourable binding free energies for AP02590 (-50.80 ± 0.90 kcal/mol) and AP02754 (-46.31 ± 0.83 kcal/mol), reinforcing their potential as lead compounds for antischistosomal drug development. These findings provide a foundation for further experimental validation of peptide-based inhibitors targeting metabolic pathways in S. mansoni.

Oxamniquine (OXA) exhibits selective efficacy against different Schistosoma species, with the highest activity observed in Schistosoma mansoni sulfotransferase (SmSULT) and the lowest in Schistosoma japonicum sulfotransferase (SjSULT). This study utilises advanced atomistic and molecular simulations to elucidate the structural dynamics induced by OXA binding to SmSULT and SjSULT, aiming to unravel the underpinnings of this selective efficacy. Binding free energy (BFE) analyses revealed a markedly higher affinity of OXA for SmSULT (-48.04 kcal/mol) compared to wtSjSULT (-22.84 kcal/mol), with a significant restoration of binding affinity (-39.23 kcal/mol) observed in SjSULT following the mutation of Val139 to Gly139. Comprehensive conformational assessments highlighted that SmSULT-OXA achieves its superior efficacy by stabilising the protein structure, in stark contrast to the erratic conformational behaviour of wild-type SjSULT. Notably, this erratic behaviour is ameliorated upon mutation, leading to a restoration of OXA's efficacy in SjSULT. These insights elucidate the structural mechanisms underpinning OXA's selective efficacy and provide valuable perspectives on its targeted action against Schistosoma spp.

Introduction: Infectious diseases significantly impact pulmonary vascular disorders, particularly in developing countries where parasitic infections remain prevalent. These infections constitute a substantial yet frequently overlooked contributor to pulmonary hypertension. Discussion: This review examines the prevalence of parasitic lung diseases in regions where communicable infections are endemic and highlights their pathophysiological links to pulmonary hypertension. Schistosomiasis and HIV notably increase pulmonary hypertension risk in these areas. While other infectious diseases may also cause pulmonary vascular lesions, most remain insufficiently studied. The review addresses global epidemiological trends, diagnostic challenges, and recent advancements in understanding the multifaceted origins of pulmonary hypertension. Conclusion: The association between parasitic infections and pulmonary hypertension is significant, necessitating a high index of suspicion for pulmonary hypertension in patients with a history of parasitic diseases, especially in endemic regions. More research is needed to understand infection-related pulmonary hypertension mechanisms and reduce its global impact.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is highly prevalent and a major health problem in developing countries. Controversial findings are reported on the effect of schistosomiasis and HBV infection. This study aimed to describe the association of S. mansoni infection with Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) carriage rate in schistosome endemic setting.

A cross-sectional study was conducted from January to March 2024 among school children aged 7-14 years old in two primary schools of Jille Timuga district of Oromo special zone, Amhara region, Ethiopia. Demographic and health related data was collected by Kobo collect tool. Blood and stool specimens were collected to test Hepatitis B infection using rapid test kit and S.mansoni infection by kato-katz method respectively. The data was analyzed by STATA version 17 statistical software. A descriptive statistic, bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to identify associated factors. P-value of <0.05 was used as a cut-off in reporting statistical significance.

A total of 300 children participated in the study with a mean age of 10.5 years (±2) ranging from 7 to 14 years. Eighty-nine (29.6%) children were infected with S. mansoni and the sero-prevalence of hepatitis B surface antigen was 0.3%; no co-infection was observed. Children who had taken praziquantel mass treatment recently (<6 month) had higher infection rate at 34%. Likewise, highest prevalence of S. mansoni infection (39.8%) was found among 11-12 years age group. A significant association of sex with higher S.mansoni infection rate was observed where males had 2.07 increased odds of infection.

The observed prevalence of S. mansoni infection (29.6%) was high in view of the ongoing preventive chemotherapy using praziquantel. The low, 0.3%, prevalence of HBV in the setting of higher S.mansoni prevalence underscore non well defined association of HBSAg carriage with schistosomiasis. However, a larger, well-controlled further research is recommended. The infection rate of S. mansoni was higher among children who recently took praziquantel which highlight the limitations of mass drug administration (MDA) program and possibility of re-infection. These emphasize the need for integrated schistosomiasis control programs, combining mass drug administration with other supportive intervention measures such as snail control.

There is a need for current and more detailed information on the distribution of Biomphalaria pfeifferi snails in East Africa's river systems. B. pfeifferi is arguably the most important snail intermediate host in the transmission of schistosomiasis, a disease ranked second to malaria in terms of tropical diseases of public health importance.

We assessed the occurrence and geographical distribution of B. pfeifferi snails in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. Maximum entropy modelling was used to predict the potential distribution of B. pfeifferi snails and malacological surveys were conducted guided by MaxEnt predictions and information from previous studies. Malacological surveys were conducted at a total of 172 sites, including streams, rivers, dams, irrigation schemes and springs over a 3-y period from 2018 to 2020, with geospatial, ecological and physicochemical information recorded for each site.

B. pfeifferi snails were found at 23 of the 172 sites and inhabited a variety of habitat types. Of the 23 sites where B. pfeifferi snails were found, 15 (65.2%) were streams, 3 rivers (13.04%), 2 dams (8.7%), 2 springs (8.7%) and 1 an irrigation scheme (4.35%). B. pfeifferi abundance showed a significant positive correlation with increasing water temperature and decreasing water depth. In Kenya, B. pfeifferi snails were found around the Lake Victoria basin, the Mwea irrigation scheme and in parts of the former Eastern Province of Kenya. In Uganda, B. pfeifferi snails were found in Jinja District, Ntoroko District and Soroti District. In Tanzania, B. pfeifferi snails were found in the Iringa, Tabora and Kigoma Regions. We observed moderate to high prevalence of Schistosoma mansoni infection, with S. mansoni-infected snails found at 11 of 23 sites and with an average prevalence of 24.9% at infected sites. In Kenya, S. mansoni-infected snails were found in the Lake Victoria basin (22.5% prevalence at infected sites) and the former Eastern Province (13.5% prevalence at infected sites). In Uganda, infected snails were found in Ntoroko District (100% infected) and Soroti District (20% infected). In Tanzania, infected snails were found in the Kigoma Region, with a prevalence of 10% at the infected site.

This information on the distribution of B. pfeifferi snails and S. mansoni infection in East Africa's river systems can aid in developing better prevention and control strategies for human schistosomiasis. Regular surveys of the river systems for snail intermediate hosts followed by molecular detection of schistosome infection could form a basis for the development of a prompt and cost-effective surveillance system for schistosomiasis in the region.

Background Despite the implementation of severe rounds of preventive chemotherapy, schistosomiasis is a disease of concern affecting millions of people, especially in underdeveloped and developing countries including Nigeria. This study aimed to use a qualitative method to have an in-depth understanding of the gaps in school children's knowledge, attitude, and practices regarding schistosomiasis. Methods This study employed a qualitative method to obtain information from schoolchildren in riverine villages in Osun State, Nigeria. The study was conducted among 138 children in Primary 4-6 across 12 schools selected using the purposive sampling technique. A total of 24 focus group discussions were conducted by public health professionals and doctors. The recorded data was transcribed and analyzed using ATLAS.ti software (ATLAS.ti Scientific Software Development GmbH, Berlin, Germany). Results A few respondents (27.5%) accurately identified the symptoms, risk factors, and preventive measures of schistosomiasis. A sizable portion (75.9%) expressed readiness to seek care early from professionals within the hospital settings, undergo medical tests to confirm the diagnosis, and adhere to prescribed drugs and other preventive measures appropriately as a primary preventive measure to ensure clearance of organism. A significant portion (78.8%) of the participants indicated the use of pit latrines as the most common method of sewage disposal. Outside the house, the most commonly mentioned is defecating in the bush, reflecting open defecation practices. Conclusions This study highlights the gaps in knowledge, attitude, and practices regarding schistosomiasis among children in the riverine communities of Osun State. To reduce the disease, we need targeted health education, better sanitation, and easier access to healthcare. These steps can help protect children and control the disease in the long term.

This study aimed to assess the prevalence and risk factors of intestinal schistosomiasis in students at Bochesa Elementary School in the wetlands of Lake Ziway.

A cross-sectional study of 384 students was conducted in May 2016. Intestinal schistosomiasis was examined using the Kato-Katz technique. For the association between the prevalence of intestinal schistosomiasis and categorical variables, the chi-square (χ2) test was used. A binary logistic regression was applied.

The overall prevalence of intestinal schistosomiasis was 25.52%. Males were more infected (17.45%) than women (8.07%), and the difference was significant (χ2 = 17.756; P <0.05). Lower grade (1-4) students were more infected (20.83%) than grade 5-8 students (4.69%), and the difference was significant (χ2 = 19.558; P <0.05). Age groups of 7-14-year-old students were more infected (24.74%) than >15-year-old students (0.78%), and the difference was significant (χ2 = 4.788; P <0.05).

The result implied that the wetlands of Lake Ziway are conducive to schistosomiasis. Students should receive health education on the mode of schistosomiasis transmission and its prevention methods, and a buffer zone for the wetlands should be identified. Praziquantel treatment is crucial in reducing intestinal schistosomiasis in students.

Globalization and neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are increasingly closely linked. In recent years, Spain and Southern Europe are experiencing a considerable increase in the influx of migrants infected by NTDs, mainly from West African countries. This study focuses on imported schistosomiasis and the entry into Europe of hetero-specific hybrids between two human species, Schistosoma mansoni and S. haematobium, causing intestinal and urogenital schistosomiasis respectively.

Individualized genetic identification by molecular analysis using RD-PCR, sequencing and cloning of nuclear rDNA and mtDNA of 134 Schistosoma eggs was performed, including 41 lateral-spined and 84 terminal-spined eggs from urine, and nine lateral-spined eggs from stools. These eggs were recovered from six migrant males from Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Côte d'Ivoire and Mali, who shared ectopic shedding of S. mansoni-like eggs in their urine. A high hybridization complexity was detected in the eggs of these patients, involving three Schistosoma species. The six patients were infected by S. mansoni x S. haematobium hybrids shedding S. mansoni-like eggs, and also S. haematobium x S. curassoni hybrids shedding S. haematobium-like eggs. SmxSh hybrids were mostly detected in S. mansoni-like eggs from urine (94.59%), whereas in feces the detection of those hybrids was less frequent (5.41%).

This study contributes to: (i) a better understanding of the heterospecific hybrids between S. mansoni and S. haematobium from the genetic point of view; (ii) it shows the frequency with which they are entering non-endemic countries, such as Spain and consequently in Europe; (iii) it determines the diversity of hybrid eggs and haplotypes that can occur within a single patient, e.g., up to two types of hybrids involving three Schistosoma species and up to six different haplotypes; (iv) it provides information to be considered in clinical presentations, diagnosis, responses to treatment and epidemiological impact in relation to possible transmission and establishment in non-endemic areas.

Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F. Gmel (Family: Rosaceae) and Rumex abyssinicus Jacq (Family: Polygonaceae) are valuable medicinal plants traditionally used in Ethiopia to treat various diseases. Recent studies have also demonstrated that solvent extracts of these plants exhibit molluscicidal activities under laboratory conditions, highlighting their potential for snail control. However, limited information is available regarding their safety profiles.

This study aimed to evaluate acute, and sub-acute toxicity of 70% ethanol extracts of H. abyssinica and R. abyssinicus flowers in Swiss albino mice, following the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development guidelines 423 and 407.

In the acute toxicity study, both extracts were administered orally to experimental groups at varying concentrations (mg/kg bodyweight): 5, 50, 300, and 2000. For the sub-acute toxicity study, both extracts were given to the experimental groups at doses (mg/kg) of 125, 250, and 500 daily for 28 days. Blood samples were collected from each mouse and analyzed for hematological and biochemical parameters. Additionally, the heart, liver, and kidneys were excised, stained, and examined for potential histopathological effects.

The acute toxicity study revealed no noticeable changes in behavior at the highest oral dosage of 2000 mg/kg. In the sub-acute toxicity study, no statistically significant changes were observed in hematological and biochemical parameters compared to the control group. Similarly, no abnormal histological findings were noted in the examined organs in comparison to the control group.

These findings indicate that flower extracts of both plants did not show significant toxicity to laboratory mammals at an oral dosage of 2000 mg/kg.

Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by infection with blood flukes of the genus Schistosoma. Widely distributed in the Middle East, southeast Asia, Latin America, and (mostly) sub-Saharan Africa, schistosomiasis is acquired upon skin penetration of infective larvae released by freshwater snails. Acute infection might present with self-limiting hypersensitivity reactions (known as Katayama fever). Chronic infection typically leads to two main clinical patterns: intestinal or urogenital schistosomiasis, depending on the infecting species. Impairment of other body sites (eg, the CNS or respiratory tract) can occur. The intestinal form is characterised by abdominal pain and diarrhoea, with or without blood; complications are hepatic fibrosis, portal hypertension, splenomegaly, and variceal bleeding. The urogenital form is characterised by dysuria and haematuria; complications are renal failure and squamous-cell carcinoma of the bladder. Conventional diagnosis is based on egg detection in faeces or urine, although sensitivity might be low. Praziquantel is the first-line treatment, and it is also provided in preventive chemotherapy campaigns by mass drug administration to afflicted communities.

Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are a group of 20 conditions that affect impoverished communities and disproportionately impact women and children in tropical areas. The symposium aimed to raise awareness of NTDs and explore the One Health approach as well as actions needed to successfully combat NTDs. It featured four presentations and two panel discussions. The presentations covered topics such as the "Burden of NTDs in Low-and middle-income countries", "Challenges in the prevention and control of NTDs: Schistosomiasis", "One health action needed to address NTDs: the case of Neurocysticercosis", and "The success of one health intervention in the fight against Trachoma in Kenya". All presenters emphasized the crucial role of the One Health integrated approach in effectively and sustainably preventing NTDs.

Metabolomics is an analytical approach utilized to explore the metabolic profiles of biological systems. This process typically involves the application of techniques such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and mass spectrometry (MS). In the case of schistosomiasis, metabolomics has been employed to identify potential diagnostic biomarkers, examine the host's metabolic response, and explore more effective therapeutic strategies. The objective of this scoping review is to assess the scope and characteristics of metabolomic research on schistosomiasis conducted over the past decade.

To identify relevant original publications, a systematic search was conducted in the PubMed and Web of Science databases using the following search terms: ("Metabolomics" OR "Metabolomic" OR "Metabonomics" OR "Metabonomic") AND ("Schistosomiasis" OR "Schistosoma"). These terms were applied to the titles and abstracts of the publications, with a focus on the period from January 2014 to December 2024.

The initial search yielded 48 articles. However, after a thorough evaluation of the abstracts, 14 articles were selected based on the established inclusion criteria. The selection process is visually depicted in the PRISMA flowchart. The majority of the studies included in this review were conducted in China (7 articles) and Brazil (3 articles). Approximately two-thirds of the studies utilized animal models, with serum serving as biofluid in 66% of the studies. The findings of this scoping review suggest that chromatographic techniques coupled with mass spectrometry are predominantly used in metabolomic research on schistosomiasis, accounting for 75% of the studies. The identified metabolites are associated with metabolic pathways related to glycolysis, the TCA cycle, and amino acid metabolism, as well as demonstrating alterations resulting from intestinal dysbiosis observed during the infection. As exemplified by succinate and citrate, which are present in the alterations of energy pathways in Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma japonicum species. The serum levels of these metabolites are modified, reflecting the host's metabolic and immunological responses induced by the infections.

These studies successfully elucidated the metabolic pathways and key metabolites involved in schistosomiasis. The findings are significant for the future identification of diagnostic biomarkers and the development of novel antiparasitic agents targeting Schistosoma species.

Not Applicable.

Schistosomiasis remains a major public health concern in Africa, despite global efforts to eliminate the disease by 2030. This study estimates the burden, trends, and inequalities of schistosomiasis in Africa from 1990 to 2021, and projects future prevalence to inform the WHO's elimination strategies. Data from the Global Burden of Disease Study (GBD 2021) were used to calculate annual average percentage change (AAPC) and annual percentage change (APC), with spatial global autocorrelation analysis performed to examine temporal and spatial trends. Five modeling algorithms were constructed to predict disease burden in Africa from 2022 to 2041. The age-standardized prevalences rate (ASPR) of schistosomiasis in Africa decreased from 18,495.51 per 100,000 in 1990 to 9,461.76 per 100,000 in 2021. The total number of cases, disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), and mortality accounted for 84.25%, 87.92% and 87.28% of the global totals, respectively. ARIMA modeling predicts that by 2030, the ASPR will reach 3.99%. Despite progress, the burden remains significant, and intensified efforts are needed, particularly in high-burden regions like West Africa, to meet the WHO's 2030 elimination targets.

Regular mass drug administration of praziquantel has a positive impact on reducing the burden of human schistosomiasis, however transmission still persists in many areas. To reach disease elimination; tailored interventions are needed to not only further reduce infections but also to tackle areas of persistent high prevalences of infection. One proposed approach is timed treatment based on the natural disease transmission cycle in relation to seasons. This study assessed the effectiveness of timed praziquantel treatment in a seasonal transmission foci of S. haematobium in northwestern Tanzania.

A longitudinal study was conducted among school aged children (SAC) between November 2022 and May 2023 in the Simiyu region, Tanzania. A single urine sample was collected from each of the participant and examined for S. haematobium eggs by the urine filtration method. Infected children were divided into two cohorts and treated with one dose of praziquantel, 40mg/kg of body weight in two different seasons. The first cohort was treated during the low transmission season, following the conclusion of the dry season in November 2022. In contrast, cohort two was treated during the high-transmission season, after the rainy season ended in May 2023. Cure rates and egg reduction rates were recorded at three-weeks post-praziquantel treatment for both cohorts.

Out of 5265 screened participants, 517 and 274 S. haematobium infected SAC from the first and second cohorts respectively, participated in the study. The mean age for both cohorts was 11.2 ± 1.8 years. The prevalence of S. haematobium infection decreased by 12.0 %, from 17.7 % (95 %CI:16.4-19.1) to 5.7 % (95 %CI: 4.9-6.5) in cohort one, and by 11.4 %, from 15.5 % (95 %CI:13.9-17.1) to 4.1 % (95 %CI:3.2-5.0) in cohort two. The mean intensity of infection also decreased by 37.4 eggs/10 ml, from 41.2 to 3.8 eggs/10 ml of urine in cohort one (p < 0.001), and by 4.1 eggs/10 ml, from 10.3 to 6.2 eggs/10 ml of urine in cohort two (p < 0.001). The egg reduction rate was higher in cohort one (91 %) than in cohort two (40 %). Finally, there was a non-significant difference in cure rates between cohort one (64.2 %) and cohort two (69.7 %), (χ2(1) = 2.4107, p = 0.121).

Timed treatment with Praziquantel was effective in both cohorts, in terms of reduction in prevalence, heavy intensities, cure rate and egg reduction rates. However, it was less effective in the second cohort, which was treated during the high transmission season. In areas with seasonal transmission of Schistosoma haematobium, praziquantel should be administered during the low-transmission season to enhance its efficacy and increase the effectiveness of preventive chemotherapy programmes.

Urinary schistosomiasis is caused by the blood fluke Schistosoma haematobium, which is predominantly found in Africa. The freshwater snail Bulinus globosus is its main intermediate host. The species that make up the B. globosus group are genetically complex, and their taxonomic status remains controversial. Genetic variation, heterozygosity, and DNA recombination in B. globosus were examined using the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) and the intron 3 region of the arginine kinase gene (AkInt3). A total of 81 B. globosus snails were collected from three different localities in Kwale County, Kenya. Genomic diversity, heterozygosity, DNA recombination, and haplotype network were calculated using AkInt3 sequences. Low polymorphism in the COI sequence divided B. globosus into six haplotypes (C1-C6). However, AkInt3 sequencing studies showed high polymorphisms, classifying 81 B. globosus snails into 44 haplotypes (H1-H44). These haplotypes were separated into three haplogroups (I-III). AkInt3 sequence heterozygosity was also found. DNA recombination haplotypes between haplogroups were commonly found in heterozygous samples. AkInt3 sequence studies showed high levels of genetic polymorphism and heterozygosity, supporting its use as a genetic marker for elucidating the population genetics of B. globosus. Furthermore, our study showed that B. globosus populations in Kenya form a "species complex".

Bladder cancer is among the most common form of cancer worldwide and is predicted to increase in incidence and mortality over the next decade. Squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder is a rare histological variant typically associated with schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, a parasitic infection caused by flatworms called schistosomes or blood flukes, and is generally seen in underdeveloped nations. However, squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder still represents nearly 5% of bladder cancer diagnoses in the western world. Transitional cell carcinoma is the predominant histological variant of bladder cancer found throughout the western world, and nearly all disease indicators and treatments for bladder cancer are driven by this common variant. Squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder shows characteristic features that differ from transitional cell carcinoma, such as differing levels of protein indicators and different response rates to traditional bladder cancer therapies. Common treatment methods for squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder include radical cystectomy, chemotherapies, and radiation. Reviewing the previous literature on the management of squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder, it becomes apparent that this variant needs to be treated differently than common bladder cancer variants and a proper management course needs to be set in place to maximize positive patient outcomes. Such a study will be very helpful for urologists and oncologists to manage patients with bladder squamous cell carcinoma.

Urogenital schistosomiasis is endemic in Togo. Since 2010, Togo has used preventive chemotherapy to control the disease and periodically assess its impact. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of urogenital schistosomiasis and identify associated risk factors among school-age children in three districts of the Plateaux Region of Togo.

A cross-sectional study surveyed school-age children in three Togo districts, using an oversampling strategy of door-to-door visits to collect urine samples, metadata and lifestyle data. Statistical analyses, including descriptive and multilevel regression, were used to determine prevalence and investigate individual/community risk factors associated with urogenital schistosomiasis and infection intensity.

This study surveyed 6400 children, uncovering a 15.0% prevalence of urogenital schistosomiasis (95% CI: 14.1% to 15.8%). Notably, 48.3% (95% CI: 45.1% to 51.5%) showed heavy-intensity infections, averaging 38 eggs per 10 mL (range: 0-9688). Key risk factors included age (adjusted OR (aOR)=1.9), swimming in surface water (aOR=2.6) and residing in the Ogou district (aOR=11.2), while the Est-Mono district posed a lower risk (aOR=0.2). Factors such as gender, with boys at higher risk (aOR=1.7), age (aOR=2.9), school attendance (aOR=2.4) and swimming in surface water (aOR=4.7) were linked to infection intensity. Consumption of public tap water (aOR=2.4; 95% CI: 1.0 to 5.2) and residing in Ogou (aOR=28.6) increased intensity, whereas living in Est-Mono (aOR=0.0; 95% CI: 0.0 to 0.08) or using rainwater (aOR=0.0; 95% CI: 0.0 to 0.4) decreased it.

The prevalence and intensity of urogenital schistosomiasis were found to be correlated with household and behavioural risk factors. Integrating these factors into national control programmes and improving access to safe water and sanitation facilities will be crucial in eliminating this disease as a public health concern in Togo.

Schistosoma mansoni poses a considerable global public health challenge. In Egypt, approximately 60% of the inhabitants in the Northern and Eastern areas of the Nile Delta are affected by this parasite, whereas the Southern region experiences a significantly lower infection rate of 6%.

Construction of an immune phage display Nbs library based on the VHH framework for selecting S. mansoni-specific Nbs for seeking cost-effective, sensitive, and specific diagnostic tools for rapidly detecting Schistosoma mansoni.

Camel was immunized using soluble adult worm antigens (SAWP) for the production of Variable domains of heavy chains of camelid heavy-chain only antibodies (VHHs), which are known as nanobodies (Nb). The PBMCs repertoires VHH sequences library have been constructed with a high percentage of insertion and right orientation using pADL-23c phagmid and M13 phage followed by three rounds of bio-panning against SAWP using phage display technique. Evaluations using polyclonal phage ELISA and other techniques have been carried out to reveal the successful enrichment of anti-SAWP Nbs (VHH) clones. Evaluation of the diagnostic potentiality of these Nbs was carried out using ELISA on human serum samples confirmed for S. mansoni infection. Receiver Operator of Characteristics (ROC) curve analysis was used for discrimination between S. mansoni infection and both negative controls and the Fasciola hepatica group.

Using monoclonal ELISA, Nbs of 22 clones out of 24 selected clones showed binding affinity to SAWP. The cutoff values of the produced anti-S. mansoni Nbs was > 0.19, leading to 80% sensitivity, 95% specificity, and 90% accuracy. Sequence analysis of three of these Nbs with high binding affinities showed diversity in their targets, considering their CDR3 aa sequences.

This study successfully generated a diverse phage library enriched with anti-S. mansoni VHHs. The nanobodies produced exhibit high diagnostic potential for detecting S. mansoni infection in human patients, offering a promising avenue for the development of efficient diagnostic tools. The innovative approach described herein may have potential applications for patent considerations in the field of the field of diagnostic technology.

Schistosomiasis, a parasitic disease with a complex transmission mechanism, requiring a snail intermediate host, is influenced by biology, the environment, human behavior and the prevailing socioeconomic situation. This study aimed to systematically investigate the importance and feasibility of indicators related to the factors influencing transmission and intervention measures for Schistosoma mansoni and S. haematobium. Based on a literature review and group discussions according to the Delphi method, a framework questionnaire was designed. A total of 33 experts on schistosomiasis were invited, and 27 were accepted, to rate the importance and feasibility of indicators for transmission with and the control of schistosomiasis, with a focus on intervention measures for S. mansoni and S. haematobium infections in Zimbabwe. After two rounds of Delphi consultations with these experts, calculated to have a high average authority coefficient (0.88), a consensus was reached on a framework that included 2 primary, 6 secondary and 39 tertiary indicators. The Delphi-entropy method was applied to assess the weight of each indicator. The key influencing factors included hazardous water exposure, accessibility to safe drinking water, sanitary facilities and the contamination of water bodies by outdoor defecation/urinary habits. The intervention measures involved improved diagnostics, health education, preventive chemotherapy, the presence of national control plans and the implementation of the strategy on water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH). While these factors are already well known, their detailed order of importance could help to improve the allocation of specific control efforts.

Marine cyanobacteria represent a promising yet underexplored source of novel natural products with potent biological activities. Historically, the focus has been on isolating cytotoxic compounds from marine cyanobacteria, but a substantial number of these photosynthetic microorganisms also produce diverse specialized molecules with significant anti-infective properties. Given the global pressing need for new anti-infective lead compounds, this review provides a concise yet comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on anti-infective secondary metabolites derived from marine cyanobacteria. A majority of these molecules were isolated from free-living filamentous cyanobacteria, while several examples were derived from marine cyanobacterial symbionts. In addition, SAR studies and potent synthetic analogs based on selected molecules will be featured. With more than 200 molecules, this review presents their antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antiprotozoal, and molluscicidal activities, with the chemical and biological information covered in the literature up to September 2024.

Schistosomiasis is a major human disease of public health importance. Freshwater snails serving as intermediary hosts and human interaction with surface water tainted by feces or urine are both necessary components of the transmission cycle. Schistosoma haematobium, Schistosoma mansoni, and Schistosoma japonicum are the primary pathogen species. Over 250 million individuals are infected globally, according to the World Health Organization, causing significant morbidity and an estimated loss of 1.9 million disability-adjusted life years, a number that is probably underestimated. Immunological protection is slowly built up through complex immunological systems, although innate factors also play a role. Chronic schistosomiasis affects mainly individuals residing in poor rural area. Vaccination is considered as one of the most sustainable options for the control of any pathogen, but schistosomiasis vaccine for humans or animals is not available till now despite the discovery of numerous potentially promising schistosome vaccine antigens.

To provide an overview of the schistosomiasis chemotherapy, chemoprevention, and vaccines history and progress.

Review article.

PubMed, ISI Web of Science, Science Direct, and the World Health Organization database.

Favorably praziquantel (PZQ) is a medication with excellent chemopreventive treatment compliance. Due to the extensive usage of PZQ, there is a great deal of debate surrounding the emergence of drug resistance. PZQ is effective against all species of schistosomes, schistosomiasis prevalence has remained largely unaffected, due to reinfection in high transmission areas and growing juvenile worms that were not affected by the drug, even though the need for a schistosomiasis vaccine is even more pressing.

Schistosomiasis, which affects a large number of people worldwide, is among the most overlooked parasitic diseases. The disease is mainly prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa, southeast Asian countries, and South America due to the lack of adequate sanitation. The disease is mainly associated with poor hygiene, sanitation, and contaminated water, so it is also known as a disease of poverty. Three Schistosoma species (S. mansoni, S. japonicum, and S. haematobium) cause significant human infections. Co-infections with Schistosoma and other parasites are widely common. All these parasites may cause intestinal or urogenital schistosomiasis, where the disease may be categorized into the acute, sensitized, and chronic phases. The disease is more prevalent among school children, which may cause anemia and reduce development. Chronic infections frequently cause significant liver, intestinal, and bladder damage. Women exposed to contaminated water while performing normal duties like washing clothes might acquire urogenital schistosomiasis (UGS), which can cause tissue damage and raise the risk of blood-borne disease transmission, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission. Praziquantel (PZQ) is the World Health Organization (WHO)-prescribed treatment for individuals who are known to be infected, but it does not prevent further re-infections with larval worms. Vaccine development and new molecular-based diagnosis techniques have promised to be a reliable approach to the diagnosis and prevention of schistosomiasis. The current review emphasizes the recent advancement in the diagnosis of schistosomiasis by molecular techniques and the treatment of schistosomiasis by combined and alternative regimes of drugs. Moreover, this review has also focused on the recent outbreak of schistosomiasis, the development of vaccines, and their clinical trials.

Echinococcosis and schistosomiasis, caused by parasitic worms, pose significant threats to millions of people in the world. Rapid and effective pathogen detection and epidemic control by public health authorities are urgently needed.

In this study, we aimed to develop rapid on-site detection method to detect echinococcosis and schistosomiasis.

Recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) was utilised to examine its efficacy of detection of echinococcosis and schistosomiasis.

The detection probes for RPA were created through comparing parasitic genomes from international genomic data and the sequences generated by our group. We established an optimised RPA on-site testing platform, which significantly reduces the detection time (less than 30 min) and simplifies the operation (free of expensive equipment) as compared to traditional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method.

This RPA detection platform in our study for identifying echinococcosis or schistosomiasis pathogens would be greatly applicable for epidemic investigation, border screening, and early clinical diagnosis.

The prevalence of intestinal schistosomiasis remains a challenge despite government efforts to eliminate the disease. This study aims to assess the prevalence of intestinal schistosomiasis in school-age children living in the villages surrounding Lake Chamo in southern Rift Valley of Ethiopia.

A cross-sectional study was conducted from January to July 2023 in Shele Mela Kebele in Gamo Zone, South Ethiopia. Stool samples were collected from 597 school-age children. A singe Kato-Katz for helminths and formalin-ether concentration technique for protozoan parasites were used to process the samples. The intensity of Schistosoma mansoni infection among school-age children was determined by counting the number of eggs per gram of stool. Of the 597 children screened, 52.3% (95% CI: 48.4.4-56.4) were positive for Schistosoma mansoni. These findings showed that 55% of the infections were light, 30.3% were moderate, and 14.7% were heavy. The mean egg count of S. mansoni parasites was 182.1 eggs per gram. The prevalence of other intestinal parasites (Hymenolopis nana, Ascaris lumbricoides, Hookworm, Taenia species, Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba histolytica) was found to be 7.7% (46/597). The overall prevalence of S. mansoni co-infection with other intestinal parasites was 5.0% (30/597). Specifically, the co-infection rates were 1.5% for A. lumbricoides, 1.3% for H. nana, 1.0% for Taenia species, 0.2% for Hookworm, 0.2% for E. histolytica, and 0.2% for G. lamblia.

The study showed a high rate of S. mansoni infection among school-age children. This calls for immediate action, such as school-based deworming, to protect these children from the disease and reduce the burden. Further research is needed to understand the transmission of the infection by the intermediate host.

Freshwater snails are the first obligatory intermediate hosts in the trematode life cycle. Several parasitic diseases transmitted by these snails are endemic in Africa, and their distribution closely follows that of the intermediate hosts. These diseases represent a major public health problem and cause significant socio-economic losses in Africa, particularly schistosomiasis and fascioliasis. In this review, we will describe the main roles of freshwater snails in the life cycle of trematode parasites, and the geographical distribution of these diseases in Africa. We will also discuss the different techniques for detecting parasitic infections in snails, as well as the various methods of controlling snails and the larval stages of parasites.

We carried out a literature search for articles dealing with parasitic diseases transmitted by freshwater snail hosts in Africa. The search was conducted in databases such as PubMed, Web of Science and Google Scholar using various search terms combined by Boolean operators. Our search was limited to peer-reviewed articles less than 10 years old. Articles published to date in the fields of control of parasitic diseases transmitted by freshwater snails were included. Results were presented in narrative and in table format.

The results of the database search identified 1007 records. We included 84 studies in this review. These studies generally focused on freshwater snails and the diseases they transmit. We described the geographical distribution of 43 freshwater species belonging to nine snail families, as well as the parasites that infect them. Several methods for diagnosing parasites in their snail hosts have been described, including microscopic and molecular methods, as well as antibody and protein barcode-based techniques. Molluscicides have been described as the main strategy for snail control.

This study highlights several elements of knowledge about diseases transmitted by freshwater snails and their distribution. A good understanding of snail infection detection techniques and existing control methods is an essential component in adapting control strategies for these diseases.

People with Latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) remain the reservoir of tuberculosis. One-third to 1/4 of the world's population is infected. Its reactivation is due to factors that disrupt the host's immune response. Recent findings showed that Schistosoma mansoni coinfection leads to a Th2/Th1 profile which results in an immune modulation that favors the escape of the Mycobacteria. Schistosoma mansoni may contribute to TB incidence in endemic regions. We aimed to investigate the co-infection rate and patient outcomes.

A prospective cohort study was conducted between 2020-2022 at University Clinical Research Center (UCRC), including culture-confirmed active pulmonary TB patients and tested for Schistosoma mansoni in stools using Kato-Katz Technique. After descriptive analysis a logistic regression was performed to determine risk factors associated with TB and Schistosoma mansoni co-infection.

Data of 174 tuberculosis-confirmed patients, Kato-Katz tested were analyzed. Males represented 62.6%, mean age was 34.9 ± 13.8 years, 29.9% were smokers, alcohol consumption 13.8%, TB contact history 26.4%, HIV coinfection 11.5%, diabetes 6.3%, undernourished 55.7%. Schistosoma mansoni prevalence was 28.7%. The co-infection was associated with less lung cavitation [aOR = 0.24 [95% CI (0.06-0.85), p = 0.028], unfavorable treatment result [aOR = 2.95 (1.23-7.08), p = 0.015] and death [aOR = 3.43 (1.12-10.58), p = 0.032].

Despite Kato-Katz's low sensitivity, Schistosoma mansoni coinfection was found in one-third of the TB patients; 2.5-fold higher than that of HIV. The coinfection was associated with poor treatment results and death.

Schistosomiasis, a tropical parasitic disease, affects 779 million people globally, with 85% of cases in Africa. The interplay between schistosomiasis and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) can exacerbate health burdens, but most attention has focused on interactions with HIV, neglecting coinfections with other STIs. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to understand the role Schistosoma infections play in STIs within schistosomiasis-endemic populations.

The study is a systematic review and meta-analysis investigating the link between Schistosoma infections and STIs in endemic regions. It uses PRISMA guidelines, electronic databases, and Google Scholar to assess prevalence, associations, and heterogeneity, reducing bias using a Meta-Mar statistical tool.

A quantitative synthesis of 33 articles from 1975-2024 involved 22,587 participants from 13 countries, including regions in Africa, France, and China, examining coinfections of schistosomiasis and STIs, including HIV. The pooled estimates showed a significant risk association between schistosomiasis and STIs [RR (95% CI) = 1.18, (1.13-1.24); z/t = 7.55, p<0.0001] using a fixed effect model. Cochran's Q test (Tau2 = 0.5061, Chi2 = 476.65, df = 32, p<0.01) indicated significant heterogeneity. The Higgins I2 statistic of 93.0% (91.5%-94.7%), H = 3.86 (3.43-4.33), highlighted substantial variance between studies. Subgroup analysis showed West Africa [Weight IV = 1.7%, RR (95% CI) = 1.78 (1.28-2.47), I2 = 59%], East Africa [Weight IV = 10.5%, RR (95% CI) = 0.99 (0.86-1.13), I2 = 54%], and Southern Africa [Weight IV = 82.0%, RR (95% CI) = 1.16 (1.10-1.21), I2 = 97%] contributed significantly to the high heterogeneity in the pooled analysis. Females had a notably higher risk of STIs in the context of schistosomiasis (k = 17, RR: 1.30, 95% CI: 1.23-1.37, Q = 316.78, I2 = 94.9%), compared to males (k = 6, RR: 0.94, 95% CI: 0.77-1.15, Q = 53.44, I2 = 90.6%) and the combined group of females and males (k = 9, RR: 0.95, 95% CI: 0.88-1.02, Q = 16.38, I2 = 50.2%).

The study found a high risk of coinfections between schistosomiasis and STIs, particularly in West and Southern Africa, confirming female genital schistosomiasis as a major risk for STIs.

Food allergy (FA) is considered the 'second wave' of the allergy epidemic in developed countries after asthma and allergic rhinitis with a steadily growing burden of 40%. The absence of early childhood pathogen stimulation embodied by the hygiene hypothesis is one explanation, and in particular, the eradication of parasitic helminths could be at play. Infections with parasites Schistosoma spp. have been found to have a negative correlation with allergic diseases. Schistosomes induce regulatory responses to evade immune detection and ensure their long-term survival. This is achieved via excretory/secretory (E/S) products, consisting of proteins, lipids, metabolites, nucleic acids and extracellular vesicles, representing an untapped therapeutic avenue for the treatment of FA without the unpleasant side-effects and risks associated with live infection. Schistosome-derived immunotherapeutic development is in its infancy and novel discoveries are heavily technology dependent; thus, it is essential to better understand how newly identified molecules interact with host immune systems to ensure safety and successful translation. This review will outline the identified Schistosoma-derived E/S products at all life cycle stages and discuss known mechanisms of action and their ability to suppress FA.

Paleoparasitological studies have made important contributions to our understanding of the past epidemiology of parasites, infection in past populations and lifestyle in the past. In some cases, these ancient parasites can also provide evidence for long distance travel or migration of people in the past. Three sediment samples from a 15th–16th c. CE latrine from the Spanish nation house in Bruges, Belgium were analysed for preserved helminth eggs using microscopy. Bruges was a major trading centre in medieval Europe, thus it was home to a large merchant population with extensive trading networks. Paleoparasitological analysis revealed a preserved parasite egg from Schistosoma mansoni, which causes intestinal schistosomiasis. Roundworm, whipworm, liver fluke and Taenia tapeworm eggs were also found in the latrine which is consistent with parasites previously found in the local population in the medieval period. These new data provide direct evidence for the movement of S. mansoni outside of its endemic area. Today the vast majority of S. mansoni infections occur in Sub-Saharan Africa, with additional endemic areas in the Arabian peninsula and South America. The introduction of S. mansoni into South America is proposed to have occurred relatively recently in human history, as the result of forced movement of people from Africa to the Americas with the Atlantic slave trade. Thus, this infection may have occurred in a merchant who acquired the parasite during trade voyages to Africa or in an individual living in Africa who migrated to Bruges.

Urogenital schistosomiasis caused by Schistosoma haematobium affects approximately 110 million people globally, with the majority of cases in low- and middle-income countries. Schistosome infections have been shown to impact the host immune system, gene expression, and microbiome composition. Studies have demonstrated variations in pathology between schistosome subspecies. In the case of S. haematobium, infection has been associated with HIV acquisition and bladder cancer. However, the underlying pathophysiology has been understudied compared to other schistosome species. This systematic review comprehensively investigates and assimilates the effects of S. haematobium infection on systemic and local host mucosal immunity, cellular gene expression and microbiome.

We conducted a systematic review assessing the reported effects of S. haematobium infections and anthelmintic treatment on the immune system, gene expression and microbiome in humans and animal models. This review followed PRISMA guidelines and was registered prospectively in PROSPERO (CRD42022372607). Randomized clinical trials, cohort, cross-sectional, case-control, experimental ex vivo, and animal studies were included. Two reviewers performed screening independently.

We screened 3,177 studies and included 94. S. haematobium was reported to lead to: (i) a mixed immune response with a predominant type 2 immune phenotype, increased T and B regulatory cells, and select pro-inflammatory cytokines; (ii) distinct molecular alterations that would compromise epithelial integrity, such as increased metalloproteinase expression, and promote immunological changes and cellular transformation, specifically upregulation of genes p53 and Bcl-2; and (iii) microbiome dysbiosis in the urinary, intestinal, and genital tracts.

S. haematobium induces distinct alterations in the host's immune system, molecular profile, and microbiome. This leads to a diverse range of inflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses and impaired integrity of the local mucosal epithelial barrier, elevating the risks of secondary infections. Further, S. haematobium promotes cellular transformation with oncogenic potential and disrupts the microbiome, further influencing the immune system and genetic makeup. Understanding the pathophysiology of these interactions can improve outcomes for the sequelae of this devastating parasitic infection.

Schistosomiasis, officially named as a neglected tropical disease by The World Health Organization, is a serious parasitic disease caused by trematode flukes of the genus Schistosoma. It is a common infectious disease, endemic in more than 78 countries. The disease can involve various organs and poses far-reaching public health challenges.

Here, we present a series of five patients with variable presentations: an asymptomatic patient who was diagnosed with colonic schistosomiasis upon screening colonoscopy; 2 patients with clinical suspicion of colonic cancer; and 2 patients with a clinical diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease. All patients were subsequently confirmed to have colonic schistosomiasis after colonoscopy and histopathologic examination. The clinical manifestations, colonoscopy features and histologic findings of the patients are described. Most of the patients showed significant clinical improvement following administration of oral praziquantel.

Intestinal schistosomiasis can present with features mimicking other gastrointestinal conditions. This disease should be a diagnostic consideration in patients who live in or have traveled to endemic areas.

A woman from sub-Saharan Africa living in the Middle East, presented with acute abdominal pain and COVID-19 infection. She underwent a laparotomy and left salpingectomy for a left tubal ruptured ectopic pregnancy. The histopathology report revealed the presence of tubal schistosomiasis in addition to the ectopic sac. The report emphasises the importance of considering female genital schistosomiasis as a potential cause of ectopic pregnancy and the need for collaboration between obstetricians and infectious disease physicians in the definitive treatment of the disease to reduce reproductive morbidity. This case report highlights the possibility of female genital schistosomiasis as a cause of ectopic pregnancy in women from endemic regions.

Schistosomiasis, one of the neglected tropical diseases which affects both humans and animals, is caused by trematode worms of the genus Schistosoma. The disease is caused by several species of Schistosoma which affect several organs such as urethra, liver, bladder, intestines, skin and bile ducts. The life cycle of the disease involves an intermediate host (snail) and a mammalian host. It affects people who are in close proximity to water bodies where the intermediate host is abundant. Common clinical manifestations of the disease at various stages include fever, chills, headache, cough, dysuria, hyperplasia and hydronephrosis. To date, most of the control strategies are dependent on effective diagnosis, chemotherapy and public health education on the biology of the vectors and parasites. Microscopy (Kato-Katz) is considered the golden standard for the detection of the parasite, while praziquantel is the drug of choice for the mass treatment of the disease since no vaccines have yet been developed. Most of the previous reviews on schistosomiasis have concentrated on epidemiology, life cycle, diagnosis, control and treatment. Thus, a comprehensive review that is in tune with modern developments is needed. Here, we extend this domain to cover historical perspectives, global impact, symptoms and detection, biochemical and molecular characterization, gene therapy, current drugs and vaccine status. We also discuss the prospects of using plants as potential and alternative sources of novel anti-schistosomal agents. Furthermore, we highlight advanced molecular techniques, imaging and artificial intelligence that may be useful in the future detection and treatment of the disease. Overall, the proper detection of schistosomiasis using state-of-the-art tools and techniques, as well as development of vaccines or new anti-schistosomal drugs may aid in the elimination of the disease.

Schistosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease which imposes a considerable and enduring impact on affected regions, leading to persistent morbidity, hindering child development, diminishing productivity, and imposing economic burdens. Due to the emergence of drug resistance and limited management options, there is need to develop additional effective inhibitors for schistosomiasis. In view of this, quantitative structure-activity relationship studies, molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulations, drug-likeness and pharmacokinetics predictions were applied to 39 Schistosoma mansoni Thioredoxin Glutathione Reductase (SmTGR) inhibitors. The chosen QSAR model demonstrated robust statistical parameters, including an R2 of 0.798, R2adj of 0.767, Q2cv of 0.681, LOF of 0.930, R2test of 0.776, and cR2p of 0.746, confirming its reliability. The most active derivative (compound 40) was identified as a lead candidate for the development of new potential non-covalent inhibitors through ligand-based design. Subsequently, 12 novel compounds (40a-40l) were designed with enhanced anti-schistosomiasis activity and binding affinity. Molecular docking studies revealed strong and stable interactions, including hydrogen bonding, between the designed compounds and the target receptor. Molecular dynamics simulations over 100 nanoseconds and MM-PBSA free binding energy (ΔGbind) calculations validated the stability of the two best-designed molecules. Furthermore, drug-likeness and pharmacokinetics prediction analyses affirmed the potential of these designed compounds, suggesting their promise as innovative agents for the treatment of schistosomiasis.