Hepatitis C virus infection and prisoners: Epidemiology, outcome and treatment

Table 1 Hepatitis C virus prevalence in different studies on prisoners

Ref.	Year of screening	Country	Type of study	Number screened/total	Type of screening	HCV prevalence
Adjei et al[31]	2004/5	Ghana	C-S 8 prisons; inmates vs staff	1336/7652 vs 445/2139	C + Q	18.7% vs 18.7%
Almasio et al[16]		Italy				38%
Alvarez et al[29]	2009/13	United States	C-S	2788	C + Q + Clinical records	10.1%
Babudieri et al[42]		Italy	C-S 8 prisons	973		38%
Barros et al[20]	2007/8	Brazil	C-S	148/150	C + I	6.1%
Brandolini et al[17]	2006	Italy	C-S	695/965	HCV History + C	22.4%
Hennessey et al[36]	1999/2000	United States	C-S	1292 HIV-positive	Stored blood + medical records	13%
Kazi et al[33]	2007/8	Pakistan	C-S	357	C + Q	15.2%
Kheirandish et al[37]	2006	Iran	C-S	454/499	C + I	80%
Luciani et al[24]	2005/9	Australia	Prospective cohort study	210 HCV Ab -	C + Q + payment+ follow-up	Incidence 14.8 per 100/yr
Macalino et al[32]	1998/2000	United States		4269/5390		23.1%
				446 incidence study		0.4 per 100/yr
Mahfoud et al[30]	2007/8	Lebanon	C-S	580/35500	Random+ C + Q	3.43%
Marco et al[41]		Spain	Observational and C-S 18 prisons	371	Q	22.7%
Meyer et al[34]	2002	Germany	C-S	1125/1176	C + I post screening	8.6%
Mohamed et al[19]		Egypt	C-S	500/1200	Random sampling + C + Q	15.8%
Nokhodian et al[40]		Iran	C-S	160	C + I	4.4%
Prasetyo et al[21]	2009	Indonesia	C-S 4 prisons	375/375	C + Q	34.1%
Reekie et al[28]	2004	Australia	C-S	588	C + Q	33.3%
	2007		C-S	536	C + Q	31.6%
	2010		C-S	618	C + Q	23.2%
Rosa et al[27]	2010/11	Brazil	Descriptive study	195/386	Random + C + Q	9.7%
Sagnelli et al[38]		Italy	C-S 9 prisons	2241/3468	Peer-to-peer education + C	22.8%
Saiz de la Hoya et al[25]	2008	Spain	C-S 18 prisons	378		22.7%
Santos et al[18]	2009/10	Brazil	C-S 2 prisons	422/519	C + Q	3.1%
Semaille et al[26]	2010	France	C-S 27 prisons	1876	Q + medical records	4.8%
Solomon et al[35]	2002	United States	C-S	3914	Educational information, C + or counseling	29.7%
Taylor et al[23]	2010/11	Scotland	C-S 14 prisons	4904/6565	C + Q	19%
						Incidence > 1%
Tresó et al[22]	2007/9	Hungary	C-S 20 prisons inmates vs staff	4894/14331	C + Q	4.9% vs 0.5%

C-S: Cross-sectional; C: Consent; Q: Questionnaire; I: Interview; HCV: Hepatitis C virus.

Table 2 Risk factors associated with hepatitis C virus, hepatitis C virus genotype and human immunodeficiency virus and/or hepatitis B virus co-infection

Ref.	HCV prevalence	Risk factors (odds ratio)	HCV genotypes (No. of patients)	Co-infection
Adjei et al[31]	18.7% vs 18.7%
Alvarez et al[29]	10.1%	IVDU (64.8)1; sex with IVDU (8.0)1; HIV (4.3)1; STD (3.2)1; tattoo (2,9)a; non-Hispanic black (2.3)1
Babudieri et al[42]	38%	IVDU (10.5); tattoo (2.9)
Barros et al[20]	6.1%	IVDU (5.9)1; > 6 in prison(4.2)1; sex with IVDU(1.4)1; age > 40 (4.4)1	1a (3) 1b (1) 3a (1)
Brandolini et al[17]	22.4%	HIV +; origin; age 35-52		HIV/HCV 11.6% (60)
Hennessey et al[36]	13%	HBV (4.44)1; HIV (2.51)1; previous imprisonment (2.90)1
Kazi et al[33]	15.2%	IVDU (24.32)1; surgery (2.41)1
Kheirandish et al[37]	80%	History of incarceration (4.35)1; tattoo (2.33)1; first injection ≤ 25 years old (2.72)1
Luciani et al[24]	Incidence 14.8 per 100/yr	IVDU-related behaviors; origin (2.63)2
Macalino et al[32]	23.1% 0.4%/yr	IVDU (32.44)1; increasing age > 30
Mahfoud et al[30]	3.43%	IVDU; previous imprisonment; tattoo	1 (5) 3 (1)
Marco et al[41]	22.7%			HIV/HCV 39
Meyer et al[34]	8.6%	IVDU; tattoo	1 (34) 2 (5); 3 (24) 4 (3)	HCV/HIV 5 HCV/BcAb 33
Mohamed et al[19]	15.8%	IVDU (4.1)1; > 10 in prison (3.4)1; shared toiletries (3.9)1; tattoo (2.8)1; dental procedure (4.7)1; age > 45 (1.5)1; DM (3.9)1		B/C 1.2%
Nokhodian et al[40]	4.4%	IVDU (134.44)
Prasetyo et al[21]	34.1%	IVDU (2.5); tattoo (3.2); piercing (3.6)	1a (14) 1c (5) 1b (1) 3a (4) 3k (4) 4a (2)	B/C 4
Reekie et al[28]	33.3% (’04)	IVDU; women (1.33)3		HIV/HCV 1
	31.6% (’07)	Age ≥ 25 (1.56)3		HBV/HCV 6
	23.2% (’10)	Previous imprisonment (2.15)3		HBV/HCV 5
				HBV/HCV 2
Rosa et al[27]	9.7%	IVDU (8.75); tattoo (3.35)
Saiz de la Hoya et al[25]	22.7%	IVDU (24.5)1; HIV (8.4)1; Spanish (7.5)1 Prison > 5 yr (5.2)1	1a (23) 1b (12) 3 (12) 4 (16)	HIV/HCV 8.5% HBV/HCV 0.3% HBV/HCV/HIV 1.5%
Santos et al[18]	3.1%	IVDU (23.3)1; household contact (14.1)1; syphilis (9.8)1; age > 30 (5.5)1	1a (6) 1b (1)
			1 (3) 3 (1)
Semaille et al[26]	4.8%	IVDU; women; > age; origin		HIV/HCV 0.08%
Solomon et al[35]	29.7%	Increasing age, max > 45 (13.51)1; women (1.32)1; HIV (4.09)1; HBV (2.69)1
Tresó et al[22]	4.9%	IVDU

¹Adjusted odds ratio;

²Hazard ratio;

³IRR. IVDU: Intravenous drug use; HCV: Hepatitis C virus; HBV: Hepatitis B virus; HIV: Human immunodeficiency virus; STD: Sexually transmitted diseases; DM: Diabetes mellitus; IRR: Incidence rate ratio.