This study proposes an innovative approach to food preservation by leveraging extracellular vesicle-like particles derived from Garlic (ASL-EVLPs) as a natural and effective preservation agent. To address the limitations of chemical preservatives and sensory drawbacks of garlic, we systematically investigated the antibacterial mechanisms, stability, and sensory impact of ASL-EVLPs. The isolated ASL-EVLPs exhibited notable stability and biocompatibility. Antibacterial evaluations demonstrated significant inhibition of Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922) and Staphylococcus aureus (CMCC(B) 26003) through membrane disruption mechanisms. ASL-EVLPs effectively delayed spoilage and preserved sensory attributes in carrot juice, with in vivo safety confirmed. These findings position ASL-EVLPs as a dual-functional alternative, overcoming both microbial and sensory challenges in food preservation.

Cancer is one of the main causes of death and a major obstacle to increasing life expectancy in all countries of the world. Lymph node metastasis (LNM) of in cancer patients indicates poor prognosis and it is an important indication to determine the therapeutic regime. Therefore, more attention should be given to the molecular mechanics of tumor lymphangiogenesis and LNM. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale cargo-bearing membrane vesicles that can serve as key mediators for the intercellular communication. Like Hermes, the messenger of the Greek gods, EVs can be secreted by tumor cells to regulate the LNM process. Many evidence has proved the clinical correlation between EVs and LNM in various cancer types. EVs plays an active role in the process of metastasis by expressing its connotative molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, and metabolites. However, the clear role of EVs in the process of cancer LNM has not been thoroughly studied yet. In this review, we will summarize the clinical and mechanical findings of EVs regulating role on cancer LNM, and discuss the advanced modification of the research proposal. We propose the "PUMP" principle of EVs in LNM, including Preparation, Unleash, Migration, and Planting.

Studies based on extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been multiplying exponentially for almost two decades, since they were first identified as vectors of cell-cell communication. However, several of these studies display a lack of rigor in EVs characterization and isolation, without discriminating between the different EV populations, thus generating conflicting and unreproducible results. There is therefore a strong need for standardization and guidelines to conduct studies that are rigorous, transparent, reproducible and comply with certain nomenclatures concerning the type of EVs used. The International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV) published the Minimum Information for Studies of Extracellular Vesicles (MISEV) in 2014, updating it in 2018 and 2023 to reflect different study contexts and technical advancements. The primary objective of this review is to inform future authors about EVs, including their history, nomenclature, and technical recommendations for the for isolation and functionality analysis for conducing EV-based studies according to current standards. Additionally, it aims to inform reviewers about the key parameters required for characterizing EV preparations.

Maintaining the vitality and functionality of dental pulp is paramount for tooth integrity, longevity, and homeostasis. Aiming to treat irreversible pulpitis and necrosis, there has been a paradigm shift from conventional root canal treatment towards regenerative endodontic therapy.

This extensive and multipart review presents crucial laboratory and practical issues related to pulp-dentin complex regeneration aimed towards advancing clinical translation of regenerative endodontic therapy and enhancing human life quality.

In this multipart review paper, we first present a panorama of emerging potential tissue engineering strategies for pulp-dentin complex regeneration from cell transplantation and cell homing perspectives, emphasizing the critical regenerative components of stem cells, biomaterials, and conducive microenvironments. Then, this review provides details about current clinically practiced pulp regenerative/reparative approaches, including direct pulp capping and root revascularization, with a specific focus on the remaining hurdles and bright prospects in developing such therapies. Next, special attention was devoted to discussing the innovative biomimetic perspectives opened in establishing functional tissues by employing exosomes and cell aggregates, which will benefit the clinical translation of dental pulp engineering protocols. Finally, we summarize careful consideration that should be given to basic research and clinical applications of regenerative endodontics. In particular, this review article highlights significant challenges associated with residual infection and inflammation and identifies future insightful directions in creating antibacterial and immunomodulatory microenvironments so that clinicians and researchers can comprehensively understand crucial clinical aspects of regenerative endodontic procedures.

The heart does not work in isolation, with cardiac health and disease occurring through complex interactions between the heart with multiple organs. Furthermore, the integration of organ-specific lipid metabolism, blood pressure, insulin sensitivity, and inflammation involves a complex network of signaling pathways between many organs. Dysregulation in these communications is now recognized as a key contributor to many manifestations of cardiovascular disease. Mechanistic characterization of specific molecules mediating interorgan signaling has been pivotal in advancing our understanding of cardiovascular disease. The discovery of insulin, glucagon, and other hormones in the early 20th century illustrated the importance of communication between organs in maintaining physiological homeostasis. For example, elegant studies evaluating insulin signaling and its role in regulating glucose metabolism have shed light on its broader impact on cardiovascular health, hypertension, atherosclerosis, and other cardiovascular disease risks. Recent technological advances have revolutionized our understanding of interorgan signaling. Global approaches such as proteomics and metabolomics applications to blood have enabled the simultaneous profiling of thousands of circulating factors, revealing previously unknown signaling molecules and pathways. These large-scale studies have identified biomarkers linked to early stages of heart disease and offered new therapeutic targets. By understanding how specific cells in the heart interact with cells in other organs, such as the kidney or liver, researchers can identify key pathways that, when disrupted, lead to cardiovascular pathology. The ability to capture a more holistic view of the cardiovascular system positions interorgan signaling at the forefront of cardiovascular research. As we continue to refine our tools for mapping these complex networks, the insights gained hold the potential to not only improve early diagnosis but also to develop more targeted and effective treatments for cardiovascular disease. In this review, we discuss current approaches used to enhance our understanding of organ crosstalk with a specific emphasis on cardiac and cardiovascular physiology.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) remains a major global health challenge with a need for improved diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers. This study aimed to evaluate the biomarker potential of extracellular vesicle (EV)-encapsulated glial fibrillary acidic protein (EV-GFAP), neurofilament light chain (EV-NfL), total tau (EV-T-Tau), and ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase L1 (EV-UCH-L1) in TBI. A cohort of 93 trauma patients (75 with TBI and 18 without TBI) was analyzed. Patients were sampled on admission, as well as 15 and 72 h post-injury. Following initial method validation, EVs were isolated from plasma using size exclusion chromatography (SEC), and plasma levels and EV cargo levels of biomarkers were measured using an ultra-sensitive Single Molecule Array. EV-GFAP levels were significantly elevated in TBI patients compared to non-TBI trauma patients at admission and 15 h. A positive head CT was associated with 2.85 (95% CI: 1.18-6.91) fold increased EV-GFAP, whereas EV-NfL, EV-T-Tau, and EV-UCH-L1 levels were not affected. None of the tested EV biomarkers were associated with 1-year mortality or 6-12 months' functional outcome. Plasma-GFAP levels increased 3.4 (95% CI: 1.72-6.70) fold with a positive head CT but were not associated with outcomes. EV-GFAP shows potential as an early biomarker of TBI, but plasma-GFAP remains a practical and reliable alternative. Future studies should explore the potential complementary roles of EV-based biomarkers on alternative aspects of TBI pathophysiology and prediction of long-term outcomes. Studies should refine methods to enhance reproducibility and clinical applicability.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are promising non-invasive biomarkers for cancer diagnosis. EVs proteins play a critical role in tumor progress and metastasis. However, accurately and reliably diagnosing cancers is greatly limited by single protein marker on EVs. Here, we reported an accurate diagnosis model of gastric cancer by analyzing five types of EVs surface proteins using machine learning in a retrospective study design. A washing-free detection method based on aptasensor and exonuclease Ⅰ was used to profile EVs surface proteins. The aptamer was designed as hairpin structure. The presence of target protein positive EVs converted the conformation of hairpin probes, which subsequently degraded by exonuclease Ⅰ. The exposed target protein could bind with and then open new hairpin probes, thus forming an amplification cycle. The lengths of different detection probes were optimized for detection. With the combination of five target proteins, five machine learning algorithms were compared to achieve a higher diagnostic accuracy. The best model, XGBoost, validated with 20 % of detection results could reach an accuracy of 0.8421. Furthermore, the XGBoost-based surface protein analysis could precisely identify gastric cancer patients with the area under the curve value of 0.9347 (95 % confidential interval (CI) = 0.8590 to 1.000). Since our method utilized a simple and versatile design of detection probes, its diagnostic scope could potentially be expanded to include different protein markers and accurately diagnose other diseases in the future.

Extracellular vesicles are nanoscale vesicles released by a diversity of cells that mediate intercellular communication by transporting an array of biomolecules. They are gaining increasing attention in cancer research due to their ability to carry specific biomarkers. This characteristic makes them potentially useful for highly sensitive, noninvasive diagnostic procedures and more precise prognostic assessments. Consequently, EVs are emerging as a transformative tool in cancer treatment, facilitating early detection and personalized medicine. Despite significant progress, clinical implementation is hindered by challenges in EV isolation, purification, and characterization. However, developing advanced biosensor technologies offers promising solutions to these obstacles. This review highlights recent progress in biosensors for EV detection and analysis, focusing on various sensing modalities including optical, electrochemical, microfluidic, nanomechanical, and biological sensors. We also explore techniques for EV isolation, characterization, and analysis, such as electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and single-particle analysis. Furthermore, the review critically assesses the challenges associated with EV detection and put forward future directions, aiming to usher in a cutting-edge era of precision medicine through advanced, sensor-based, noninvasive early cancer diagnosis by detecting EV-carried biomarkers.

In the cardiovascular system, different types of cardiovascular cells can secrete specific exosomes and participate in the maintenance of cardiovascular function and the occurrence and development of diseases. Exosomes carry biologically active substances such as proteins and nucleic acids from cells of origin and can be used as biomarkers for disease diagnosis and prognosis assessment. In addition, exosome-mediated intercellular communication plays a key role in the occurrence and development of cardiovascular diseases and has become a potential therapeutic target. This article emphasizes the importance of understanding the mechanism of exosomes in cardiovascular diseases and systematically details the current understanding of exosomes as regulators of intercellular communication in cardiomyocytes, providing a basis for future research and therapeutic intervention.

Various cell types release extracellular vesicles (EVs) containing proteins, DNA, and RNA essential for intercellular communication. The bioactive molecules from EVs can reflect disease status and monitor progression, while their communication abilities suggest therapeutic potential. We will review various EV isolation methods, EV-enriched fluids, and studies analyzing differential mi-RNA and protein levels extracted from EVs. Specifically, tear-derived EVs, which protect their molecular content and allow for real-time monitoring of ocular conditions such as Dry Eye Disease (DED), Sjögren's disease (SJD), Ocular graft-versus-host disease (oGVHD), and Diabetic Retinopathy (DR), which all currently remain undiagnosed in patients. EVs also provide potential as carriers for gene transfer, and mesenchymal stem cell (MSCs)-derived EVs are shown to be immunomodulatory, demonstrating promise for autoimmune ocular diseases. Through the multi-omic analysis of tear-fluid content, EVs are promising biomarkers and therapeutic agents in ocular diseases.

Aging is a multifaceted biological process marked by a gradual decline in physiological functions, driven by cellular senescence, oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, and stem cell exhaustion. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), naturally occurring nanoscale vesicles secreted by various cell types, have gained attention as potential therapeutic agents due to their ability to mediate intercellular communication by delivering bioactive molecules, including proteins, lipids, and RNAs. This review provides a comprehensive overview of EV biogenesis, cargo composition, and their mechanistic roles in counteracting aging processes. EVs from diverse sources-such as mesenchymal stem cells, embryonic stem cells, dermal fibroblasts, and colostrum-exhibit regenerative properties by modulating immune responses, enhancing tissue repair, and promoting extracellular matrix homeostasis. Recent preclinical and clinical studies further highlight their potential in addressing age-related diseases and skin rejuvenation. However, significant challenges remain, including standardization of EV production, large-scale manufacturing, safety profiling, and regulatory approval. By leveraging advancements in EV engineering, targeted delivery systems, and combination strategies with existing anti-aging interventions, EV-based therapies hold promise as next-generation approaches in regenerative medicine and longevity enhancement.

Single extracellular vesicle (EV) research holds the potential to revolutionize our understanding of cellular communication and enable breakthroughs in diagnostics and therapeutics. However, the lack of a clear, consensus-driven definition of single EV research has led to methodological inconsistencies, overgeneralized interpretations, and, in some cases, misleading claims. In this perspective, we propose a framework for defining single EV research, critique current challenges and misconceptions in this field, and discuss its implications for biomedical applications. We argue that precise experimental design, rigorous validation, and interdisciplinary collaboration approaches are needed to establish single EV research as a cornerstone of precision medicine.

Neutrophil-based drug delivery systems for targeted therapy of cancer have been studied widely in the recent past. Chemotactic cytokines including colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) recruit various immune cells including the neutrophils to the tumor microenvironment (TME) leading to enhanced metastasis. These cytokines can be targeted effectively by immunotherapeutic agents such as checkpoint inhibitors and mAbs that can lead to systemic toxicity. To minimize the systemic adverse effects, camouflaged nanoparticles can be used significantly as alternative therapeutic agents. The neutrophil-interacting NPs and neutrophil membrane coated NPs have been exploited recently for their antitumor properties in vitro and pose limited systemic adverse effects in vivo. Neutrophil-derived exosomes derived from immune cells can efficiently escape immune-surveillance and pass through the blood-brain barrier. They possess several intrinsic properties in drug delivery as they are nano-sized, extremely biocompatible, non-immunogenic, biodegradable, stable and can carry targeting agents with limited toxicity and display antitumor properties. Also, neutrophil-based nanotherapy is dependent on factors such as neutrophil kinetics and the physicochemical properties of NPs such as size, shape, and surface chemistry. Therefore, neutrophil-based drug delivery for cancer therapy via the use of polymer nanoparticles is widely studied as their clinical appliance in nanomedicine is still at its infancy.

MicroRNAs (miRNA) are a class of endogenous non-coding small RNA molecules that are widely found in tissues, biological fluids, and vesicles such as exosomes. Exosomes are extracellular vesicles released from multivesicular bodies of various cell types. They are involved in intercellular communication and transport and immune regulation and may serve as potential biomarkers for diagnosis and monitoring. The function of exosomal miRNAs and their potential applications as biomarkers are a topic of interest. However, identification and comparison of miRNA expression in different biological sample types have rarely been studied. Therefore, in this study, the miRNA profiles of tissue- and tissue-derived exosomes of Pinctada fucata were characterized and compared to screen for differentially expressed miRNAs. The miRNAs functioned within tissues and were also packaged into exosomes. Simultaneously, some miRNAs were preferentially exported to exosomes for their biological functions. Functional analyses suggested that the predicted genes targeted by these differentially expressed miRNAs were extensively involved in intracellular vesicle trafficking and vesicle-mediated substrate transport. Overall, our findings provide insights into the roles of tissue-derived miRNAs and circulating exosomal miRNAs in cell communication and gene regulation. Moreover, this study serves as an additional reference for sample type selection for P. fucata small RNA analysis.

Enhanced blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability exacerbates clinical symptoms and long-term disability after ischemic stroke. Exosomes derived from cerebral microvascular endothelial cells (EC-Exo) can enhance neural function recovery in MCAO/R mice. However, it remains unclear whether the brain protective effects of EC-Exo are associated with improved BBB structure and functionality.

This study developed an in vitro BBB model by co-culturing endothelial cells (bEnd.3) with pericytes (MBVP) to examine the effects of EC-Exo on BBB integrity. The neurobehavioral function of EC-Exo was evaluated in vivo using the rotarod test and gait assessment. The permeability of BBB was evaluated using the Evans blue penetration test and IgG leakage test. The integrity of the BBB structure was assessed using immunofluorescence and Western blot analysis. Mechanistic investigations aimed to elucidate the regulatory role of PDGF-PDGFRβ and Ang1/Ang2-Tie2 pathways in maintaining BBB integrity.

EC-Exo improves BBB integrity by increasing TEER values and decreasing Papp in vitro. Besides, EC-Exo not only reduces gait abnormalities in MCAO/R-injured mice, attenuates BBB permeability in vivo. EC-Exo enhances the expression of tight junction and basement membrane proteins. Mechanistic studies have demonstrated that EC-Exo can effectively activate the PDGF-PDGFRβ and Ang1/Ang2-Tie2 signaling pathways, thereby facilitating the maintenance of BBB integrity, and these effects were verified with PDGFRβ inhibitor and Tie2 inhibitor in vitro.

In conclusion, EC-Exo enhances BBB integrity by activating PDGF-PDGFRβ and Ang1/Ang2-Tie2 signaling pathways, promoting communication between endothelial cells and pericytes. This introduces an innovative adjuvant therapy for treating ischemic stroke.

Extracellular vesicles from human milk (HMEVs) are crucial for neonatal development, immune modulation, and protection against pathogens. However, the lack of standardized isolation and characterization protocols poses significant challenges. This review aims to evaluate and compare various methods for the isolation and characterization of HMEVs, highlighting their effectiveness and potential applications. Preliminary purification steps, including the removal of cells, fat globules, and casein micelles, enhance the purity of isolated HMEVs. We categorized isolation methods into density-based, size-based, and affinity-based techniques. Density-based methods include differential and density gradient ultracentrifugation. Size-based methods encompass polymer precipitation, membrane filtration, electrophoretic filtration, size exclusion chromatography, and microfluidics. Affinity-based methods involve immunoisolation using antibodies specific to HMEV surface proteins. Characterization techniques discussed include flow cytometry, dynamic light scattering, nanoparticle tracking analysis, tunable resistive pulse sensing, electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, confocal microscopy, western blotting, ELISA, and lateral flow immunoassay systems. Differential ultracentrifugation, considered the "gold standard," provides high purity but is time-consuming. Density gradient ultracentrifugation offers precise separation. Size-based methods like polyethylene glycol precipitation and membrane filtration are simple and fast. Electrophoretic filtration and microfluidics provide precise control of sample flow. Affinity-based methods are highly specific but costly. Advanced characterization techniques provide comprehensive insights into HMEV properties and functions. Standardizing isolation protocols and employing advanced characterization techniques are essential for advancing HMEV research. Future studies should focus on understanding the molecular mechanisms of HMEVs, exploring the impact of maternal health, and developing targeted delivery technologies. These efforts will enhance the therapeutic potential of HMEVs in neonatal care and contribute to personalized nutritional interventions.

Lung cancer is one of the most lethal types of cancer, and effective diagnostic biomarkers are required. There is increasing evidences that exosome-secreted lncRNAs could play an important role in lung cancer diagnosis. However, the diagnostic value and molecular mechanism of the key lncRNA PITPNA-AS1 in lung cancer remain unclear.

qRT-PCR was conducted to determine the levels of exosomal lncRNA PITPNA-AS1 in pleural effusions from lung adenocarcinoma, squamous cell lung carcinoma, and small cell lung cancer patients. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses were used to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of PITPNA-AS1. Its role in lung cancer development was determined by a series of experiments, including CCK-8, flow cytometry, and transwell assays. RNA pull-down and RNA immunoprecipitation assays were carried out to examine the interaction between PITPNA-AS1 and Fragile X messenger ribonucleoprotein 1 (FMR1).

We discovered PITPNA-AS1 in exosomes from lung cancer patients. Its expression was significantly increased in lung cancer patients compared to non-cancer patients, and it was strongly associated with tumor stage, lymph node metastasis, and distant metastasis in all lung cancer subtypes assessed (all p<0.05). ROC curve analyses demonstrated that exosomal PITPNA-AS1 had a high accuracy for differentiating among lung cancer subtypes. Furthermore, PITPNA-AS1 boosted H1299 and A549 cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. Mechanistically, via direct interaction, PITPNA-AS1 increased FMR1 stability by preventing its ubiquitination.

These results reveal that exosome-derived lncRNA PITPNA-AS1 acts as an oncogene to promote malignant biological behaviors and is a promising diagnostic biomarker in lung cancer.

This study introduces a comprehensive approach to enhancing SiNx nanofilters for exosome isolation from bovine milk using the electrophoretic oscillation-assisted tangent-flow ultrafiltration (EPOTF) process. Reinforcing the nanofilter with electro-spun poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) fibers significantly improved durability under high-pressure conditions, withstanding nearly 2.8 times greater pressures than nonreinforced nanofilters. The PVDF-fiber-coated nanofilters achieved a flow rate of over 70 mL min-1, compared to just 25 mL min-1 for nonreinforced nanofilters. A filter housing system with copper electrodes isolated from the solution flow path further enhanced the electrical stability of the entire system, widening the EPO voltage range while reducing the risk of corrosion and contamination. The PVDF-fiber-coated nanofilter with the electrode in a separated housing efficiently prevented clogging and bioparticle agglomeration, maintaining constant filtration performance across various voltages and duty cycles. Biochemical analyses confirmed the high concentration and structural integrity of exosomes isolated at high flow rates. Long-term tests verified the superior performance of PVDF-coated filters, successfully filtering 3400 mL of milk over 24 h. These results demonstrate the potential of these advances for highly efficient exosome isolation while maintaining the integrity and shape of exosomes, offering promise for the future of exosome isolation research.

Extracellular vesicles can play an important role in the processes occurring after stem cell transplantation, preventing cell apoptosis, stimulating immunological processes, and promoting the synthesis of extracellular matrix. Human follicular fluid (FF) can be a source of a subpopulation of cells with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) properties. Moreover these subpopulations of FF cells can differentiate into osteoblasts. In presented studies flow cytometry of ovarian FF cells confirmed positive expression of MSCs markers such as: CD44, CD90, CD105, CD73 and negative expression of a hematopoietic marker: CD45. The CD90+, CD105+, CD45- cell subpopulation has been obtained during magnetic separation using appropriate antibodies conjugated with microbeads. The extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by the cells during osteodifferentiation process differed from those secreted by cells culture in the basal medium. Based on the previous and current electron microscopy research, changes in size, number, and shape would support the notion that released EVs could be crucial to the ovarian FF cell subpopulation differentiation process. Osteogenic differentiation has been confirmed via Alizarin red staining. Therefore, follicular fluid (FF) can be a new source of a cell subpopulation with MSC properties, with the cells capable of differentiating into the osteogenic lineage. EVs could play a key role as mediators in tissue regeneration, especially bone tissue regeneration.

Exosomes are vesicles secreted by cells, typically ranging from 30 to 150 nm in diameter, and serve as crucial mediators of intercellular communication. Exosomes are capable of loading various therapeutic substances, such as small molecule compounds, proteins, and oligonucleotides, thereby making them an ideal vehicle for drug delivery. The distinctive biocompatibility, high stability, and targeting properties of exosomes render them highly valuable for future treatments of diseases like cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Despite the potential advantage of exosomes in delivering biologically active molecules, the techniques for the preparation, purification, preservation, and other aspects of stem cell exosomes are not yet mature enough. In this paper, we briefly introduce the composition, biogenesis, and benefits of exosomes, and primarily focus on summarizing the isolation and purification methods of exosomes, the preparation of engineered exosomes, and their clinical applications, to better provide new ideas for the development of exosome drug delivery systems.

Cancer continues to pose a global threat despite potent anticancer drugs, often accompanied by undesired side effects. To enhance patient outcomes, sophisticated multifunctional approaches are imperative. Small extracellular vesicles (EVs), a diverse family of naturally occurring vesicles derived from cells, offer advantages over synthetic carriers. Among the EVs, the exosomes are facilitating intercellular communication with minimal toxicity, high biocompatibility, and low immunogenicity. Their tissue-specific targeting ability, mediated by surface molecules, enables precise transport of biomolecules to cancer cells. Here, we explore the potential of exosomes as innovative therapeutic agents, including cancer vaccines, and their clinical relevance as biomarkers for clinical diagnosis. We highlight the cargo possibilities, including nucleic acids and drugs, which make them a good delivery system for targeted cancer treatment and contrast agents for disease monitoring. Other general aspects, sources, and the methodology associated with therapeutic cancer applications are also reviewed. Additionally, the challenges associated with translating exosome-based therapies into clinical practice are discussed, together with the future prospects for this innovative approach.

There is growing interest in the role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in neonatal pathology. This study aimed to characterise circulating EVs following preterm birth. This single-centre prospective observational study included cord and postnatal plasma from preterm (n = 101) and full-term infants (n = 66). EVs were analysed using nanoparticle tracking analysis, flow cytometry, proteomics and procoagulant activity assay. We found changes in the concentration, size, cellular origin and proteomic content of circulating EVs in preterm infants during perinatal adaptation. To understand if these changes were related to prematurity or normal adaptation to extrauterine life, they were also investigated in term infants. There was a dramatic increase in the concentration of small and large EVs on Day 3 in the preterm group; specific subsets of platelet (CD42b+ and CD62P+), endothelial (VEGFR2) and tissue factor EVs were elevated. Differentially expressed proteins relating to haemostasis, pulmonary physiology and immunity were identified between Day 1 and 3 in preterm infants. These changes have never previously been described in a large cohort of preterm infants and differ from healthy term infants. These findings have major implications for future neonatal EV studies, particularly the timing of sample collection. Further work is required to understand the clinical implications of this unique EV profile following preterm birth.

Premature ovarian insufficiency (POI) refers to the severe decline or failure of ovarian function in women younger than 40 years of age. It is a serious hazard to women's physical and mental health, but current treatment options are limited. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-Exo) exhibit promising potential as a therapeutic approach for POI. However, their clinical application is hindered by their instability and low long-term retention rate in vivo.

In this study, miR-21 was identified as the predominant miRNA with low-expression in follicular fluid exosomes of POI patients and was shown to possess antiapoptotic activity. Next, we loaded miR-21 agomir to MSC-Exo to form Agomir21-Exo, which significantly reversed the apoptosis of granulosa cells in vitro. Moreover, we successfully developed GelMA hydrogel microspheres for encapsulating Agomir21-Exo through microfluidic technology, named GelMA-Ag21Exo, which had good injectability and significantly enhanced the stability and long-term retention of Agomir21-Exo in mice through sustained release. The release of Agomir21-Exo from GelMA-Ag21Exo notably alleviated the apoptosis of ovarian granulosa cells and improved the ovarian reserve and fertility in POI mice.

Our findings illustrate that activating miR-21 through Agomir21-Exo could improve the function of ovarian granulosa cells. The GelMA-Ag21Exo enhanced the exosome-based therapeutic efficacy of the Agomir21-Exo in vivo. These findings provide a novel and promising treatment strategy for POI patients.

Advancements in exosome isolation technologies are pivotal for transforming personalized medicine and enhancing clinical diagnostics. Exosomes, small extracellular vesicles with diameters ranging between 30 and 150 nm, are secreted into bodily fluids by a variety of cells and play essential roles in intercellular communication. These vesicles facilitate the transfer of nucleic acids, lipids, and proteins, affecting a wide range of biological and pathological processes. Given their importance in disease diagnostics, therapy, and as biomarkers, there has been a surge in developing methods to isolate them from fluids such as urine, saliva, blood, and cerebrospinal fluid. While traditional isolation techniques like ultracentrifugation and polymer-based precipitation have been foundational, recent technological advances have introduced more precise methods like microfluidics and immunoaffinity capture. These newer methods enable high-throughput and specific exosome isolation by targeting surface markers, thus enhancing purity. However, challenges such as balancing purity with yield and the lack of standardized protocols across different laboratories persist, impacting the consistency of findings. By integrating advanced isolation techniques and discussing their implications in diagnostics and therapy, this review aims to catalyze further research and adoption of exosome-based technologies in medicine, marking a significant stride towards tailored healthcare solutions.

Ischemic stroke is caused by artery stenosis or occlusion, which reduces blood flow and may cause brain damage. Treatment includes restoring blood supply; however, ischemia-reperfusion can still aggravate tissue injury. Reperfusion injury can increase levels of reactive oxygen species, exacerbate mitochondrial dysfunction, create excessive autophagy and ferroptosis, and cause inflammation during microglial infiltration. Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CIRI) is a key challenge in the treatment of ischemic stroke. Currently, thrombolysis (e.g., rt-PA therapy) and mechanical thrombectomy are the primary treatments, but their application is restricted by narrow therapeutic windows (<4.5 h) and risks of hemorrhagic complications. Exosomes reduce CIRI by regulating oxidative stress, mitochondrial autophagy, inflammatory responses, and glial cell polarization. In addition, their noncellular characteristics provide a safer alternative to stem cell therapy. This article reviews the research progress of exosomes in CIRI in recent years.

Exosomes are tiny extracellular vesicles that are essential for intercellular communication and have shown great promise in the detection and treatment of disease. They are especially useful in the treatment of cancer, cardiovascular conditions, and neurological diseases because of their capacity to transport bioactive substances including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Because of their low immunogenicity, ability to traverse biological barriers, and biocompatibility, exosome-based medicines have benefits over conventional treatments. Large-scale production, standardization of separation methods, possible immunological reactions, and worries about unforeseen biological effects are some of the obstacles that still need to be overcome. Furthermore, there are major barriers to the clinical use of exosomes due to their complex cargo sorting mechanisms and heterogeneity. Future studies should concentrate on enhancing separation and purification procedures, optimizing exosome engineering techniques, and creating plans to reduce immune system modifications. This review examines the most recent developments in exosome-based diagnostics and treatments, identifies current issues, and suggests ways to improve their clinical translation in the future.

Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Its complex pathogenesis and metastasis pose significant challenges for early diagnosis, underscoring the urgent need for innovative and non-invasive tumor screening methods. Exosomes, small extracellular vesicles that reflect the physiological and pathological states of their parent cells, are uniquely suited for cancer liquid biopsy due to their molecular cargo, including RNA, DNA, and proteins. However, traditional methods for exosome isolation and detection are often limited by inadequate sensitivity, specificity, and efficiency. Nanopore technology, characterized by high sensitivity and single-molecule resolution, offers powerful tools for exosome analysis. This review highlights its diverse applications in tumor screening, such as magnetic nanopores for high-throughput sorting, electrochemical sensing for real-time detection, nanomaterial-based assemblies for efficient capture, and plasmon resonance for ultrasensitive analysis. These advancements have enabled precise exosome detection and demonstrated promising potential in the early diagnosis of breast, pancreatic, and prostate cancers, while also supporting personalized treatment strategies. Additionally, this review summarizes commercialized products for exosome-based cancer diagnostics and examines the technical and translational challenges in clinical applications. Finally, it discusses the future prospects of nanopore technology in advancing liquid biopsy toward clinical implementation. The continued progress of nanopore technology not only accelerates exosome-based precision medicine but also represents a significant step forward in next-generation liquid biopsy and tumor screening.

Lung cancer, known for its high morbidity and mortality rates, remains one of the most critical health challenges globally. Conventional treatment options, such as chemotherapy and surgery, are often limited by high costs, significant side effects, and often yield a poor prognosis. Notably, recent research has shed light on the potential therapeutic roles of exosomes, which essentially influence lung cancer's development, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis. Exosomes have been revealed for their exceptional properties, including natural intercellular communication, excellent biocompatibility, minimal toxicity, prolonged blood circulation ability, and biodegradability. These unique characteristics position exosomes as highly effective drug delivery systems, nanotherapeutics, and potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in lung cancer. This review provides a comprehensive review of the physiological and pathological roles of exosomes in lung cancer, emphasizing their potential as innovative diagnostic biomarkers, therapeutics, and delivery platforms. By harnessing their unique properties, exosomes are poised to revolutionize the diagnosis and treatment of lung cancer, offering a promising avenue for more personalized and effective therapies.

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles (MSC-EVs), especially, exosomes are considered to have diverse therapeutic effects for various significant diseases. MSC-derived exosomes (MSCex) offer substantial advantages over MSCs due to their long-term preservation, stability, absence of nuclei and fewer adverse effects such as infusion toxicity, thereby paving the way towards regenerative medicine and cell-free therapeutics. These exosomes harbor several cellular contents such as DNA, RNA, lipids, metabolites, and proteins, facilitating drug delivery and intercellular communication. MSCex have the ability to immunomodulate and trigger the anti-inflammatory process hence, playing a key role in alleviating inflammation and enhancing tissue regeneration. In this review, we addressed the anti-inflammatory effects of MSCex and the underlying immunomodulatory pathways. Moreover, we discussed the recent updates on MSCex in treating specific inflammatory diseases, including arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, inflammatory eye diseases, and respiratory diseases such as asthma and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), as well as neurodegenerative and cardiac diseases. Finally, we highlighted the challenges in using MSCex as the successful therapeutic tool and discussed future perspectives.

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) trigger atherothrombosis during acute myocardial infarction (AMI), but mechanisms of induction remain unclear. Levels of extracellular vesicles (EV) carrying oxidation-specific epitopes (OSE), which are targeted by specific natural immunoglobulin M (IgM), are increased at the culprit site in AMI. This study investigated EV as inducers of NETosis and assessed the inhibitory effect of natural anti-OSE-IgM in this process.

Blood from the culprit and peripheral site of ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) patients (n = 28) was collected, and myocardial function assessed by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (cMRI) 4 ± 2 days and 195 ± 15 days post-AMI. Extracellular vesicles were isolated from patient plasma and cell culture supernatants for neutrophil stimulation in vitro and in vivo, in the presence of a malondialdehyde (MDA)-specific IgM or an isotype control. NETosis and neutrophil functions were assessed via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and fluorescence microscopy. Pharmacological inhibitors were used to map signalling pathways. Neutrophil extracellular trap markers and anti-OSE-IgM were measured by ELISA.

CD45+ MDA+ EV and NET markers were elevated at the culprit site. Extracellular vesicles induced neutrophil activation and NET formation via TLR4 and PAD4, and mice injected with EV showed increased NETosis. Malondialdehyde-specific IgM levels were inversely associated with citH3 in STEMI patient blood. An MDA-specific IgM inhibited EV-induced NET release in vitro and in vivo. CD45+ MDA+ EV concentrations inversely correlated with left ventricular ejection fraction post-AMI.

Culprit site-derived EV induce NETosis, while MDA-specific natural IgM inhibit this effect, potentially impacting outcome after AMI.

Background: Identification of targetable biomarkers to improve early disease detection and overall patient outcomes is becoming an urgent need in clinical oncology. Ovarian cancer (OC) has one of the highest mortality rates among gynecological cancers. It is asymptomatic and almost always diagnosed at an advanced stage (III or IV), leading to a 5-year survival rate of approximately 35%. Methods: Current therapeutic approaches for OC are very limited and mainly consist of cytoreductive surgery and cisplatin plus taxane-based chemotherapy. No gender and tumor specific biomarkers are known. Exosomes, lipid bilayer vesicles of endocytic origin secreted by most cell types, represent sources of information for their involvement in the onset and progression of many diseases. Hence, research on exosome contents as tools and targets in precise oncology therapy provides knowledge essential to improving diagnosis and prognosis of the disease. Results: This review attempts to give an overview of how exosomes are implicated in ovarian carcinoma pathogenesis to trigger further cancer exosome-based investigations aimed at developing ovarian cancer fine-tuning diagnostic methodologies. Conclusions: It is essential to investigate exosome-based cancer drugs to advance understanding, improve treatment plans, create personalized strategies, ensure safety, and speed up clinical translation to increase patients' overall survival and quality of life. Papers published in PubMed and Web of Science databases in the last five years (2020-2024) were used as a bibliographic source.

The aging population has led to a global issue of osteoarthritis (OA), which not only impacts the quality of life for patients but also poses a significant economic burden on society. While biotherapy offers hope for OA treatment, currently available treatments are unable to delay or prevent the onset or progression of OA. Recent studies have shown that as nanoscale bioactive substances that mediate cell communication, exosomes from stem cell sources have led to some breakthroughs in the treatment of OA and have important clinical significance. This paper summarizes the mechanism and function of stem cell exosomes in delaying OA and looks forward to the development prospects and challenges of exosomes.

High-grade gliomas (HGG) represent a challenging subset of brain tumors characterized by aggressive nature and poor prognosis. Histopathology remains to be the standard for diagnosis, however, it is invasive, prone to sampling errors, and may not capture the full tumor heterogeneity and evolution over time. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the potential utility of circulating biomarkers, obtained through minimally-invasive liquid biopsies, providing an opportunity for diagnosis, prognostication, monitoring treatment response and developing targeted therapies.

We have reviewed the literature on circulating biomarkers for HGG, including circulating tumor cells (CTCs), circulating tumor-derived exosomes/extracellular vesicles (ctEVs), circulating tumor-derived DNA (ctDNA), circulating tumor-derived miRNA (ctmiRNA), and circulating tumor-derived proteins.

CTCs provide real-time information about tumor characteristics for molecular profiling and monitoring treatment response, yet their low numbers in circulation makes detection challenging. ctEVs carry a range of biomolecules and are easily detectable. However, they are not exclusively released from tumor cells and heterogeneity in their content requires standardized isolation and analysis methods. ctDNA is another promising biomarker with its levels correlating with the disease stage. However, its low concentration in blood requires highly sensitive techniques for identification and differentiation from normal cell-free DNA. ctmiRNA and tumor-derived proteins show promise but are limited by their susceptibility to dilution and lack of specificity in current technology.

This review highlights the transformative potential of circulating biomarkers in the management of HGG, with implications for improving patient outcomes, optimizing treatment strategies, and advancing precision oncology in neuro-oncology practice.

Decidual mesenchymal stromal cells (DMSC) were the source of extracellular vesicles (DMSC_EV). The xCELLigence real-time cell growth assay revealed increasing concentrations of EVs decreased DMSC attachment in the early growth phase but stimulated DMSC proliferation at day 7 when grown on tissue culture plastic (TCP). DMSC attachment and proliferation varied depending on the growth surface and DMSC_EV supplementation. DMSC attachment increased on decellularized and solubilized amniotic (s-dAM) whether or not EVs were added. Only Matrigel substrate increased DMSC attachment with added EVs. The addition of EVs increased DMSC proliferation only on the s-dAM substrate. DMSCs were more motile on s-dAM and decellularized and solubilized chorionic (s-dCM) membranes following EV addition. The osteogenic potential of DMSCs was improved on s-dAM substrates when supplanted with EVs. Finally, the levels of reactive oxygen species in DMSCs varied depending on the substrate but not on added EVs. We show that the addition of in vitro EVs isolated from the source being expanded (i.e., DMSCs) and the presence of ECM improve DMSC behaviours during ex vivo expansion. The inclusion of two key components of the MSC niche, EVs and ECM, benefitted the ex vivo expansion of MSCs. Added in vitro EVs increased the proliferation of DMSCs when grown on s-dAM but not on s-dCM, whereas they improved DMSC mobility on both surfaces. Testing different ECMs could be used to promote specific desired characteristics of DMSCs, and different combinations of EVs and ECM may enhance desirable MSC characteristics for specific therapeutic settings.

Exosomes play an important role in regulating physiological processes and mediating the systemic dissemination of various types of cancer. We investigated the association of exosomal tetraspanins CD9, CD63, and CD81 in patients with ovarian cancer (OC).

We measured the plasma tetraspanins CD9, CD63, and CD81 by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in 91 patients who underwent treatment for OC between April 2018 and March 2024. Additionally, we analyzed clinical pathologic factors, chemotherapy response, and prognosis.

In terms of stages, CD63 expression was significantly higher in patients with stage IV compared to those with stage I OC (p = 0.003). In terms of histological type, CD63 expression was significantly higher in high-grade serous carcinoma (HGSC) than in clear cell carcinoma (CCC) with OC (p = 0.009). Furthermore, CD63 levels were significantly higher in advanced-stage, HGSC than in patients with early-stage, non-HGSC and early-stage, HGSC OC (p = 0.045 and p = 0.002, respectively). In the Neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) of 12 patients with OC assessed as having either a partial response (PR) or complete response (CR), CD63 was significantly decreased (p = 0.043), whereas perforin was significantly increased (p = 0.001). In the NAC of 16 patients with OC, CD63 of the response rate to chemotherapy tended to differ between the progressive disease (PD) and PR/CR groups (p = 0.056). A moderate inverse correlation was observed between CD63 and perforin levels (R = 0.638, R2 = 0.428, p = 0.008).

CD63 could be a potential biomarker for all types of OC patients.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), as cell-derived small vesicles, facilitate intercellular communication within the tumor microenvironment (TME) by transporting biomolecules. EVs from different sources have varied contents, demonstrating differentiated functions that can either promote or inhibit cancer progression. Thus, regulating the formation, secretion, and intake of EVs becomes a new strategy for cancer intervention. Advancements in EV isolation techniques have spurred interest in EV-based therapies, particularly for tumor immunotherapy. This review explores the multifaceted functions of EVs from various sources in tumor immunotherapy, highlighting their potential in cancer vaccines and adoptive cell therapy. Furthermore, we explore the potential of EVs as nanoparticle delivery systems in tumor immunotherapy. Finally, we discuss the current state of EVs in clinical settings and future directions, aiming to provide crucial information to advance the development and clinical application of EVs for cancer treatment.