Sarcopenia in cirrhosis: Prospects for therapy targeted to gut microbiota

Table 1 The effect of rifaximin on the composition of the gut microbiota in various diseases

Disease	Taxa that increase in the abundance after rifaximin	Taxa that decrease in the abundance after rifaximin
Alzheimer's disease[97]	Anaerostipes, Blautia, Erysipelotrichaceae, Erysipelatoclostridium, Faecalitalea, Lactobacillus, and Ruminiclostridum
Irritable bowel syndrome[79,98-100]	Acidimicrobiales, Acidobacteria, Alteromonas, Arthrobacter, Bacillus, Bacteroidaceae, Butyricimonas, Chloroflexi, Cytophagia, Coprobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Deinococcales, Devosia, Dyella, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Frankiales, Gordonibacter, Holdemania, Kocuria, Methylophilales, Micrococcales, Micromonosporales, Nitriliruptorales, Parabacteroides, Prevotellaceae, Propionibacteriales, Rhizobiales, Rhodobacterales, Sphingomonadales, and Streptomycetales	Alphaproteobacteria, Anaerotruncus, Blautia luti, Butyricimonas, Cronobacter, Escherichia, Eubacterium ventriosum, Rhodospirillales, Romboutsia, Roseburia inulinivorans, Streptococcaceae, and Tyzzerella
Symptomatic uncomplicated diverticular disease[101-102]	Akkermansia, Bacteroidaceae, Citrobacter, Coprococcus, Dialister Ruminococcaceae, and Veillonellaceae	Anaerotruncus, Anaerostipes, Blautia, Christensenellaceae, Dehalobacteriaceae, Eggerthella lenta, Haemophilus parainfluenzae, Mogibacteriaceae, and Pasteurellaceae
Chronic Kidney Disease[103]	-	Anaerotruncus, Clostridium, and Turicibacter
Gut diseases[104]	Faecalibacterium	Ruminococcus and Roseburia
Ulcerative colitis[105]	Bacteroides and Bifidobacterium	Enterococcus and Lactobacillus
Crohn's disease[106]	Bifidobacterium, Atopobium, and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii

Table 2 The effect of rifaximin on the composition of the gut microbiota in patients with cirrhosis

Ref.	Taxa that increase in the abundance after rifaximin	Taxa that decrease in the abundance after rifaximin
Bajaj et al[120]	Eubacteriaceae	Veillonellaceae
Kaji et al[117]		Streptococcus, Veillonella
Kaji et al[118]		Streptococcus, Veillonella
Kakiyama et al[42]		Veillonellaceae
Kawaguchi et al[131]		Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Veillonella
Lv et al[130]	Bacteroidetes vulgatus	Bacteroides uniformis, Eggerthella lenta, Haemophilus, Prevotella, Roseburia
Patel et al[122]		Akkermansia, Hungatella, Streptococcus, Veillonella
Zeng et al[119]	Bacteroidaceae	Veillonellaceae

Table 3 The effect of lactitol and lactulose on the composition of the gut microbiota

Ref.	Disease	Taxa that increase in the abundance after disaccharide	Taxa that decrease in the abundance after disaccharide
Lactitol
Riggio et al[153]	Cirrhosis	Lactobacilli	Enterobacteria and Enterocicci
Ballongue et al[154]	Healthy persons	Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus and Streptococcus	Bacteroides, Clostridium, coliforms, and Eubacterium
Li et al[155]	Chronic constipation	Actinobacteria, Bifidobacteriales, Bifidobacteriaceae, Anaerostipes, and Bifidobacterium	-
Tarao et al[156]	Cirrhosis	Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus	Bacteroides and Clostridium
Lu et al[157]	Cirrhosis	Bifidobacterium, Veillonella, Enterobacter, Sutterella, Haemophilus, Aggregatibacter, Lactobacillus salivarius, L. fermentium, and L. oris	Klebsiella Pseudoflavonifractor, and others
Chen et al[158]	Chronic viral hepatitis	Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus	Clostridium perfringens
Lactulose
Riggio et al[153]	Cirrhosis	Lactobacilli	-
Ballongue et al[154]	Healthy persons	Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus and Streptococcus	Bacteroides, Clostridium, coliforms and Eubacterium
Ziada et al[159]	Minimal hepatic encephalopathy	Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, and Bacteroidaceae	Enterobacteriaceae and Enterococcus

Table 4 The effect of probiotics on the composition of the gut microbiota in cirrhosis

Probiotic	Taxa that increase in the abundance after the probiotic	Taxa that decrease in the abundance after the probiotic
Lactobacillus acidophilus[159]	Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, and Bacteroidaceae	Enterobacteriaceae and Enterococcus
Escherichia coli Nissle 1917[160]	Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus	Pathogenic enterobacteria
Escherichia coli Nissle 1917[175]	Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus	Proteus hauseri, Citrobacter, and Morganella
Yakult 400[176]	Clostridium coccoides and Eubacterium cylindroides	Enterobacteriaceae
Lactobacillus GG[177]	Clostridiales Incertae Sedis XIV and Lachnospiracea	Enterobacteriaceae
Bifidobacterium bifidum W23, Bifidobacterium lactis W51, Bifidobacterium lactis W52, Lactobacillus acidophilus W37, Lactobacillus brevis W63, Lactobacillus casei W56, Lactobacillus salivarius W24, Lactococcus lactis W19 and Lactococcus lactis W58[178]	Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Syntrophococcus sucromutans, Bacteroides vulgatus, Alistipes shahii, and Prevotella

Table 5 Effects of interventions targeting the gut microbiota on pathogenic factors in the gut-muscle axis in cirrhosis

Intervention	SIBO	Gut dysbiosis	Hyperammonemia	Bacterial translocation	Systemic inflammation
Rifaximin	+	+	+	+	CR
Prebiotic disaccharides	ND	+	+	+	+
Probiotics	+	+	+	+	CR
Fecal transplantation	ND	+	ND	ND	ND

+: A positive effect of this drug on this disorder has been reported; SIBO: Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth; CR: Conflicting results, ND: No data.