Genome-based nutrition: An intervention strategy for the prevention and treatment of obesity and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis

Table 1 Allelic frequencies of nutrient-interacting genes in America and worldwide

Gene	Allele	Population	Frequency (%)	Ref.
MTHFR	677T	Huicholes (Native Mexican)	56.0	Dávalos et al[28] 2000
		Asian	36.7	HapMap-JPT[29]
		European	23.7	HapMap-CEU[29]
		African	11	HapMap-YRI[29]
TAS2R38	AVI	European	47	Kim et al[30] 2003
		Asian	30
	PAV	Southwest Native American	100
		Asian	70
		European	49
AMY1	Copy number	European-American (high starch diet)	6.81	Perry et al[31] 2007
		Mexican (high starch diet)	6.11	Mejía-Benítez et al[32] 2014
		Biaka African (low starch diet)	5.471	Perry et al[31] 2007
		Yakut Asian (low starch diet)	5.241
CD36	-31118A	Egyptian	67.5	Bayoumy et al[33] 2012
		Caucasian	53.6	Ma et al[34] 2004
		African American	43.8	Keller et al[35] 2012
		North Indian	38.2	Banerjee et al[36] 2010
ABCA1	230C	Xavantes (Native Brazilian)	31	Acuña-Alonzo et al[37] 2010
		Coras (Native Mexican)	29
		European	0
		Asian	0
		African	0
APOE	E2	African	19	Singh et al[38] 2006
		European	12.7
		Asian	4.6
		Huicholes (Native Mexican)	0
	E4	Huicholes (Native Mexican)	28.7	Aceves et al[39] 2006
		African	27	Singh et al[38] 2006
		Asian	10.5
		European	1.1
LCT	-13910T	European	39.1	Corella et al[40] 2010
		White Brazilian	24.7	Mattar et al[41] 2009
		Mapuches (Native Chilean)	22.2	Morales et al[42] 2011
		Black Brazilian	12	Mattar et al[41] 2009

¹Mean copy number.

Table 2 Hepatopatogenic diet of the general population of West Mexico (n = 425)

Nutrient	Dietary reference values1	mean ± SD
Protein	15%	17.3 ± 4.2
Total fat	< 30%	35.5 ± 8.3
SFAs	< 7%	10.0 ± 3.8
MUFAs	20%	11.5 ± 4.8
PUFAs	10%	4.6 ± 2.5
Cholesterol (mg)	< 200	254.3 ± 144
Total carbohydrates	50%-60%	48.6 ± 8.8
Simple carbohydrates	< 10%	16.7 ± 12.5
Fiber (gr)	30	15.5 ± 9.2
Vitamin A (μg)	1000	805.1 ± 679
Vitamin C (mg)	60	86.4 ± 97.9
Folic acid (μg)	200	148.7 ± 107
Vitamin E (mg)	10	2.8 ± 4.3
Iron (mg)	15	13.1 ± 6.6
Magnesium (mg)	350	219.2 ± 123.5
Sodium (mg)	< 2400	1924.7 ± 947
Selenium (μg)	55-70	35.5 ± 22.1
Zinc (mg)	15	5.7 ± 2.8

Adapted from Ramos-López et al[95] 2013. Dietary Reference Values: References[97,98] SFAs: Saturated fatty acids; MUFAs: Monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFAs: Polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Table 3 Features of nutritional treatment for nonalcoholic steatohepatitis recommended by international guidelines

International guide	Body weight reduction	Caloric reduction	Carbohydrates	Fat	Vitamin E	Ref.
WGO	5%-10%	25%	↓ Fructose	↓ SFAs↑ω3:ω6 ratio	NI	LaBrecque et al[99] 2014
AASLD, ACG, AGA	3%-10%	NE	NE	NE	800 IU/d	Chalasani et al[104] 2012
AISF	0.5 kg/wk	NE	↓ Fructose	↓ SFAs	NI	Loria et al[105] 2010
ENDO CHINA	3%-10%	500-1000	NE	NE	800 IU/d	Gao et al[106] 2013

WGO: World Gastroenterology Organization; AASLD: American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases; ACG: American College of Gastroenterology; AGA: American Gastroenterological Association; AISF: Italian Association for the Study of the Liver; ENDO CHINA: Chinese Society of Endocrinology; SFAs: Saturated Fatty Acids; NE: Not specified; NI: Not indicated.

Table 4 Potential effects of dietary nutrients in the prevention and treatment of obesity and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis

Nutrient	Potential effects	Ref.
Macronutrients
Complex CHO/DF	Microbiota modulation, protection of gut colonization by pathogenic species, reduction of energy intake	Mann et al[107] 2007
MUFAs	Increased fatty acid oxidation and inhibition of lipogenesis	Assy et al[108] 2009; Soriguer et al[109] 2006
PUFAs	Increased fatty acid oxidation and insulin sensitivity in target tissues, inhibition of lipogenesis and anti-inflammatory	Teran-Garcia et al[110] 2007; Stienstra et al[111] 2007
Micronutrients
Vitamins C/E	Antioxidant and anti-fibrogenic	Chang et al[112] 2006; Parola et al[113] 1992
Choline/folic acid	Hyperhomocysteinemia prevention and lipid transport	Vance[114] 2008
Magnesium	Immunomodulatory, antioxidant and regulation of blood glucose levels	Takemoto et al[115] 2013
Vitamin D	Increased insulin sensitivity in target tissues	Takiishi et al[116] 2010
Food functional components
Lycopene	Antioxidant, induction of detoxifying enzymes, anti-inflammatory	Ip et al[117] 2013
Polyphenols	Antioxidant, chemopreventive, immunomodulatory, apoptosis and detoxifying enzymes induction, anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative actions	Scalbert et al[118] 2005; Fraga[119] 2007; Pandey et al[120] 2009
Probiotics (Lactobacillus)	Microbiota modulation, immunomodulatory, production of antibacterial substances and anti-inflammatory effect	Iacono et al[121] 2011

CHO: Carbohydrates; DF: Dietary fiber; MUFAs: Monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFAs: Polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Table 5 Beneficial nutrient content of the staple diet of Mexico

Scientific name	Common name	Nutrient
Salvia hispanica	Chia	MUFAs, PUFAs, magnesium
Theobroma cacao	Cocoa	MUFAs, magnesium, polyphenols
Zea mays	Maize	Magnesium, choline, vitamin E, MUFAs
Prunus dulcis	Almond	Vitamin E
Phaseolus vulgaris	Bean	Magnesium, choline, PUFAs
Amaranthus caudatus	Amaranth	Choline, magnesium, PUFAs
Psidium guajava	Guava	Vitamin C
Carica papaya	Papaw	Vitamin C
Chenopodium mexicanum	Quelites	Magnesium, vitamin C
Capsicum annuum	Chili	Vitamin C
Solanum lycopersicum	Tomato	Lycopene, vitamin C
Citrullus lanatus	Watermelon	Lycopene
Ictalurus punctatus	Catfish	Vitamin D
Thunnus albacares	Tuna fish	Vitamin D
Cucurbita pepo	Squash seeds	PUFAs
Cucurbita pepo	Squash	Vitamins C and E
Persea americana	Avocado	MUFAs, vitamin E
Lactobacillus spp	Tejuino1, Pulque2, Tepache3	Probiotics

Adapted from Ledesma-Solano et al[126]. MUFAs: Monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFAs: Polyunsaturated fatty acids.

¹Tejuino, fermented maize beverage;

²Pulque, fermented agave plant beverage;

³Tepache, fermented fruit beverage, commonly pineapple.