Artificial intelligence and machine learning applications in abdominal tuberculosis diagnosis: A scoping review and translational roadmap

Figure 1 Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews flow diagram. AI: Artificial intelligence; ML: Machine learning; TB: Tuberculosis; ATB: Abdominal tuberculosis; CT: Computed tomography; NLP: Natural language processing.

Figure 2 Risk of bias summary plot for the 17 included studies. AI: Artificial intelligence; ML: Machine learning; PROBAST: Prediction model Risk Of Bias ASsessment Tool; QUADAS-2: Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies-2; ROB: Risk of bias; ITB: Intestinal tuberculosis.

Figure 3 Geographic distribution of the 16 original studies. China: 14 (87.5%); Korea: 2. All 16 original retrospective studies originated exclusively from East Asia. No studies from any other country or region were identified in the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews scoping review (search completed April 2026).

Figure 4 Temporal publication trends (2020-2025) and modality distribution. Updated with n = 16 original articles (+ 1 systematic review = 17 total). Sixteen original retrospective studies (total n = 16). Excludes the systematic review by Sachan et al[16]. CT: Computed tomography; MRE: Magnetic resonance elastography; CNN: Convolutional neural network; NLP: Natural language processing.

Figure 5 Four-phase translational roadmap for artificial intelligence and machine learning applications in abdominal tuberculosis. This roadmap prioritizes microbiological reference standards, low-income and middle-income countries leadership, equity, and integration with existing national frameworks (e.g., Indian Council of Medical Research, standard treatment workflow). MI-CLAIM: Minimum Information about Clinical Artificial Intelligence Modeling; HIV: Human immunodeficiency virus; LMIC: Low-income and middle-income countries; AI: Artificial intelligence; CDSCO: Central Drugs Standard Control Organization; FDA: Food and Drug Administration; CE: Conformité Européenne; STW: Standard treatment workflow; NTEP: National Tuberculosis Elimination Programme; WHO: World Health Organization.