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©The Author(s) 2023.
World J Meta-Anal. Sep 18, 2023; 11(6): 290-312
Published online Sep 18, 2023. doi: 10.13105/wjma.v11.i6.290
Published online Sep 18, 2023. doi: 10.13105/wjma.v11.i6.290
Table 1 Details of the 10 studies of acute myocardial infarction
Study IDa | Ref. | Country | Design | Study population | Start year | Yr followed | Age | Sexb | Cases | Adjustc | Excld | Latencye | Endpoint | NRRf |
BIOBANK | [37] | United Kingdom | Cohort | National | 2006 | 12 | 40-69 | M, F | 5081 | 2 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 |
CaCHS | [38] | Canada | Cohort | Regional | 2001 | 13 | 20+ | M, F | 1133 | 15 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 |
CALIBER | [39] | United Kingdom | Cohort | GP records | 1997 | 13 | 30+ | F | 5628 | 1 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 1 |
EPIC-GERM | [40] | Germany | Cohort | Regional | 1994 | 14 | 35-65 | C | 507 | 0, 9 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 |
ESTONGENOME | [41] | Estonia | Cohort | National | 2002 | 13 | 18+ | M, F | 118 | 0, 1 | 0 | 0 | Died | 4g |
KIHD | [42] | Finland | Cohort | Regional | 1984 | 18 | 42-60 | M | 205 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 1 |
TROMSO | [43] | Norway | Cohort | Regional | 1979 | 33 | 20-94 | F | 854 | 0, 4 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 |
VASTERBOTTEN | [44] | Sweden | Cohort | Regional | 1990 | 19 | 30-60 | C | 2062 | 2, 9 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 |
WHILA | [45] | Sweden | Cohort | Regional | 1995 | 20 | 50-59 | F | 205 | 1, 7 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 |
WHS | [46] | United States | Cohort | National | 1992 | 26 | 45+ | F | 629 | 0, 14 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 |
Table 2 Details of the 23 studies of ischaemic heart disease
Study IDa | Ref. | Country | Design | Study population | Start year | Yr followed | Ageb | Sexc | Casesd | Adjuste | Exclf | Latencyg | Endpoint | NRRh |
7CNTRY-ITALY | [47] | Italy | Cohort | Regional | 1960 | 50 | 40-59 | M | 319 | 3 | 0 | 0 | Died | 1 |
ARIC | [48] | United States | Cohort | National | 1987 | 30 | 45-64 | C | 1798 | 0, 15 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 |
BIOBANK | [49] | United Kingdom | Cohort | National | 2006 | 12 | 40-69 | C | 547 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 1 |
CALIBER | [39] | United Kingdom | Cohort | GP records | 1997 | 13 | 30+ | F | 16800 | 1 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 1 |
CPS-II | [50] | United States | Cohort | National | 1982 | 22 | 30+ | C | 13478 | 0, 23 | 0 | 0 | Died | 2 |
CoCHS | [51] | Denmark | Cohort | Regional | 1991 | 22 | 20-93 | F | 900 | 1 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 1 |
ELSA | [52] | United Kingdom | Cohort | National | 2004 | 13 | 52+ | C | 352 | 0, 7 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 |
EPIC-10 | [53] | Multi | Cohort | International | 1991 | 19 | 35-70 | M, F | 7198 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 |
[54] | Multi | Nested CC | International | 1991 | 19 | 35-70 | C | 7198 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 1 | |
EPIC-UK | [55] | United Kingdom | Cohort | Regional | 1993 | 14 | 45-79 | C | 2332 | 0, 2, 6 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 3 |
ESTON-GENOME | [41] | Estonia | Cohort | National | 2002 | 13 | 18+ | M, F | 696 | 0, 1 | 0 | 0 | Died | 4i |
FINRISK | [56] | Finland | Cohort | National | 1982 | 25 | 25-74 | F | NR | 3, 8 | 0 | 0 | Died | 2 |
HAPIEE | [57] | Multi | Cohort | International | 2002 | 9 | NAR | C | 225 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Died | 1 |
HSE-SHS | [58] | United Kingdom | Cohort | National | 1994 | 17 | NAR | C | 1412 | 0, 7 | 0 | 0 | Died | 2 |
JACC | [59] | Japan | Cohort | Regional | 1988 | 21 | 40-79 | M, F | 1554 | 0, 7, 9 | x | 0 | Died | 4 |
MALMO | [60] | Sweden | Cohort | Regional | 1991 | 22 | 46-67 | M, F | 3217 | 0, 6 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 4 |
MESA | [61] | United States | Cohort | Regional | 2000 | 11 | 45-84 | C | 449 | 1, 14 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 3 |
[62] | United States | Cohort | Regional | 2000 | 11 | 45-84 | C | 449 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 1 | |
NAS | [63] | United States | Cohort | Regional | 1991 | 20 | NAR | F | 137 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 1 |
NHS | [64] | United States | Cohort | Medical workers | 1989 | 17 | 43-68 | F | 3874 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 1 |
NHS-II | [65] | United States | Cohort | Medical workers | 1991 | 20 | 25-42 | F | 456 | 1, 15 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 |
PREVEND | [66] | Netherlands | Cohort | Regional | 2001 | 9 | 32-80 | C | 212 | 0, 2, 10 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 3 |
USA5 | [67] | United States | Cohort | Regional | 2000 | 11 | 55+ | M, F | 29931 | 0, 5 | 0 | 0 | Died | 4 |
WHI | [68] | United States | Cohort | National | 1993 | 20 | 50-79 | F | 2975 | 11 | 0 | 0 | Died | 1 |
WHITEHALL | [69] | United Kingdom | Cohort | Civil servants | 1967 | 43 | 40-69 | M | 3250 | 1 | 0 | 0 | Died | 1 |
Table 3 Details of the 31 studies of stroke
Study IDa | Ref. | Country | Design | Study population | Start year | Yr followed | Ageb | Sexc | Cases | Adjustd | Excle | Latencyf | Endpoint | NRRg |
7CNTRY-ITALY | [47] | Italy | Cohort | Regional | 1960 | 50 | 40-59 | M | 225 | 3 | 0 | 0 | Died | 1 |
ARIC | [48] | USA | Cohort | National | 1987 | 30 | 45-64 | C | 1106 | 0, 14 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 |
BIOBANK | [70] | UK | Cohort | National | 2006 | 12 | 40-69 | M, F | 4662 | 2 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 |
CALIBER | [39] | UK | Cohort | GP records | 1997 | 13 | 30+ | F | 11842 | 1 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 1 |
CPS-II | [50] | USA | Cohort | National | 1982 | 22 | 30+ | C | 5582 | 0, 23 | 0 | 0 | Died | 2 |
CaCHS | [38] | Canada | Cohort | Regional | 2001 | 13 | 20+ | M, F | 1636 | 15 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 |
[71] | Canada | Cohort | Regional | 2001 | 11 | 20+ | M, F | 1636 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 | |
ELSA | [52] | UK | Cohort | National | 2004 | 13 | 52+ | C | 326 | 0, 7 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 |
EPIC-10 | [54] | Multi | Nested CC | International | 1991 | 19 | 35-70 | C | 2187 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 1 |
EPIC-ITALY | [72] | Italy | Cohort | Regional | 1993 | 15 | 35-74 | M, F | 386 | 0, 2, 10 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 6 |
EPIC-SPAIN | [73] | Spain | Cohort | Regional | 1992 | 16 | 29-69 | F | 301 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 1 |
EPIC-UK | [55] | UK | Cohort | Regional | 1993 | 14 | 45-79 | C | 385 | 0, 2, 6 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 3 |
ESTON-GENOME | [41] | Estonia | Cohort | National | 2002 | 13 | 18+ | M, F | 156 | 0, 1 | 0 | 0 | Died | 4h |
HAPIEE | [57] | Multi | Cohort | International | 2002 | 9 | NAR | C | 109 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Died | 1 |
HSE-SHS | [58] | UK | Cohort | National | 1994 | 17 | NAR | C | 690 | 0, 7 | 0 | 0 | Died | 2 |
JACC | [59] | Japan | Cohort | Regional | 1988 | 21 | 40-79 | M, F | 3163 | 0, 7, 9 | x | 0 | Died | 4 |
JHS | [74] | USA | Cohort | Regional | 2000 | 15 | 21-84 | C | 183 | 0, 11 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 |
JP8 | [75] | Japan | Cohort | National | 1983 | 30 | 40+ | M | 3487 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Died | 1 |
MALMO | [76] | Sweden | Cohort | Regional | 1991 | 22 | 46-67 | C | 305 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 1 |
MESA | [62] | United States | Cohort | Regional | 2000 | 11 | 45-84 | C | 180 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 1 |
MILLION | [28] | United Kingdom | Cohort | National | 1996 | 19 | 46-66 | F | 8103 | 8 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 1 |
NFBC | [77] | Finland | Cohort | Regional | 1966 | 49 | 14-46 | C | 352 | 0, 10 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 |
NHIS | [78] | United States | Cohort | National | 1987 | 24 | 18-95 | C | 2046 | 0, 5 | x | 0 | Died | 2 |
[79] | United States | Cohort | National | 1987 | 14 | 18-95 | C | 2046 | 0, 8, 9 | 0 | x | Died | 3 | |
[80] | United States | Cohort | National | 1987 | 28 | 40-79 | M | 2046 | 0, 1, 9 | 0 | x | Died | 3 | |
NHS | [64] | United States | Cohort | Medical workers | 1989 | 17 | 43-68 | F | 3288 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 1 |
NIH-AARP | [81] | United States | Cohort | Regional | 2004 | 7 | 70+ | C | 1369 | 0, 4 | 0 | 0 | Died | 2 |
NLMS | [82] | United States | Cohort | National | 1985 | 26 | 35-80 | C | 3083 | 0, 1, 5 | x | 0 | Died | 3 |
OHASAMA | [83] | Japan | Cohort | Regional | 1998 | 12 | 60+ | C | 293 | 2 | x | 0 | Diagnosed | 1 |
PREVEND | [66] | Netherlands | Cohort | Regional | 2001 | 9 | 32-80 | C | 83 | 0, 2, 10 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 3 |
SCCS | [84] | United States | Cohort | Regional | 2002 | 11 | 40-79 | C | 389 | 7 | 0 | 0 | Died | 1 |
USA5 | [67] | United States | Cohort | Regional | 2000 | 11 | 55+ | M, F | 9821 | 0, 5 | 0 | 0 | Died | 4 |
WHITEHALL | [69] | United Kingdom | Cohort | Civil servants | 1967 | 43 | 40-69 | M | 1061 | 1 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 1 |
WHS | [46] | United States | Cohort | National | 1992 | 26 | 45+ | F | 887 | 0, 14 | 0 | 0 | Diagnosed | 2 |
Table 4 Acute myocardial infarction and current vs never cigarette smoking – results from random effects meta-analyses
Full output table | Factor | Level | No. of RRs | No. of studies | RR (95%CI) | Test of heterogeneity by level (NS = P ≥ 0.1) and trend if relevant, P value |
All | 13 | 10 | 2.72 (2.40-3.08) | < 0.001 | ||
5 | Sex | Combined | 2 | 2 | 2.98 (2.20-4.04) | |
Males | 4 | 4 | 2.30 (1.57-3.37) | |||
Females | 7 | 7 | 2.83 (2.40-3.34) | NS | ||
6 | Region | N. America | 3 | 2 | 3.42 (2.93-3.99) | |
Europe | 10 | 8 | 2.54 (2.22-2.90) | < 0.01 | ||
7 | Study population | National | 5 | 3 | 2.85 (2.16-3.77) | |
Regional | 7 | 6 | 2.69 (2.18-3.33) | |||
Other | 1 | 1 | 2.51 (2.33-2.71) | NS | ||
8 | Year of start of baseline | < 1988 | 2 | 2 | 1.81 (1.28-2.56) | |
1988+ | 11 | 8 | 2.93 (2.58-3.32) | < 0.05 | ||
9 | Number of cases | < 1000 | 7 | 6 | 2.52 (1.96-3.25) | |
1000+ | 6 | 4 | 2.87 (2.46-3.35) | NS | ||
10 | Lowest age considered | < 30 | 5 | 3 | 3.02 (2.09-4.35) | |
30-44 | 6 | 5 | 2.58 (2.20-3.04) | |||
45+ | 2 | 2 | 2.88 (2.40-3.46) | NS trend NS | ||
11 | Yr of follow-up | 10-< 20 | 10 | 7 | 2.78 (2.40-3.23) | |
20-< 30 | 2 | 2 | 2.88 (2.40-3.46) | |||
30+ | 1 | 1 | 2.11 (1.81-2.46) | < 0.05 trend < 0.01 | ||
12 | Endpoint | Died | 2 | 1 | 2.99 (1.34-6.67) | |
Diagnosed | 11 | 9 | 2.71 (2.38-3.08) | NS | ||
13 | Number of adjustment factors | None | 1 | 1 | 1.47 (1.08-2.01) | |
Age only | 3 | 2 | 2.52 (2.34-2.71) | |||
More | 9 | 7 | 2.89 (2.48-3.37) | < 0.001 | ||
14 | Disease definition standard | No | 6 | 7 | 2.43 (2.06-2.87) | |
Yes | 7 | 5 | 3.14 (2.63-3.74) | < 0.05 |
Table 5 Ischaemic heart disease and current vs never cigarette smoking – results from random effects meta-analyses
Full output table | Factor | Level | No. of RRs | No. of studies | RR (95%CI) | Test of heterogeneity by level (NS = P ≥ 0.1) and trend if relevant, P value |
All | 28 | 23 | 2.01 (1.84-2.21) | < 0.001 | ||
19 | Sex | Combined | 10 | 10 | 1.94 (1.71-2.21) | |
Males | 7 | 7 | 1.86 (1.53-2.26) | |||
Females | 11 | 11 | 2.23 (1.86-2.69) | NS | ||
20 | Region | N. America | 9 | 8 | 2.23 (1.92-2.58) | |
Europe | 17 | 14 | 1.90 (1.67-2.15) | |||
Japan | 2 | 1 | 2.15 (1.73-2.69) | NS | ||
21 | Study population | National | 9 | 8 | 2.10 (1.92-2.30) | |
Regional | 12 | 9 | 1.85 (1.56-2.19) | |||
Other | 7 | 6 | 2.18 (1.77-2.69) | NS | ||
22 | Year of start of baseline | < 1988 | 5 | 5 | 1.89 (1.56-2.27) | |
1988+ | 23 | 18 | 2.04 (1.83-2.28) | NS | ||
23 | Number of cases | < 1000 | 12 | 11 | 1.97 (1.58-2.45) | |
1000+ | 16 | 12 | 2.04 (1.83-2.27) | NS | ||
24 | Exclusive cigarettes | No | 26 | 22 | 2.00 (1.82-2.21) | |
Yes | 2 | 1 | 2.15 (1.73-2.69) | NS | ||
25, 26 | Lowest age considered | < 30 | 5 | 4 | 2.45 (1.77-3.39) | |
30-44 | 11 | 9 | 1.81 (1.61-2.05) | |||
45+ | 9 | 7 | 2.06 (1.76-2.42) | NS trend without missing NS | ||
Missing | 3 | 3 | 2.09 (1.16-3.78) | |||
27 | Yr of follow-up | < 10 | 2 | 2 | 2.52 (1.07-5.90) | |
10-< 20 | 13 | 10 | 2.04 (1.77-2.35) | |||
20-< 30 | 10 | 8 | 1.99 (1.78-2.23) | |||
30+ | 3 | 3 | 1.68 (1.23-2.29) | NS trend NS | ||
28 | Endpoint | Died | 13 | 10 | 2.23 (1.94-2.57) | |
Diagnosed | 15 | 13 | 1.83 (1.62-2.05) | < 0.05 | ||
29 | Number of adjustment factors | None | 6 | 5 | 2.11 (1.78-2.50) | |
Age only | 5 | 4 | 1.64 (1.39-1.93) | |||
More | 17 | 14 | 2.10 (1.88-2.35) | < 0.05 | ||
30 | Disease definition standard | No | 13 | 12 | 1.83 (1.59-2.10) | |
Yes | 15 | 11 | 2.17 (1.93-2.45) | < 0.1 |
Table 6 Stroke and current vs never cigarette smoking – results from random effects meta-analyses
Full output table | Factor | Level | No. of RRs | No. of Studies | RR (95%CI) | Test of heterogeneity by level (NS = P ≥ 0.1) and trend if relevant, P value |
All | 37 | 31 | 1.62 (1.48-1.77) | < 0.001 | ||
35 | Sex | Combined | 17 | 17 | 1.65 (1.52-1.50) | |
Males | 9 | 9 | 1.48 (1.21-1.80) | |||
Females | 11 | 11 | 1.66 (1.39-1.99) | NS | ||
36 | Region | N. America | 14 | 12 | 1.64 (1.48-1.83) | |
Europe | 19 | 16 | 1.71 (1.51-1.94) | |||
Japan | 4 | 3 | 1.18 (1.04-1.34) | < 0.001 | ||
37 | Study population | National | 13 | 11 | 1.76 (1.47-2.11) | |
Regional | 19 | 15 | 1.55 (1.36-1.78) | |||
Other | 5 | 5 | 1.51 (1.39-1.65) | N.S. | ||
38 | Yr of start of baseline | < 1988 | 8 | 8 | 1.43 (1.23-1.67) | |
1988+ | 29 | 23 | 1.68 (1.52-1.85) | < 0.1 | ||
39 | Number of cases | < 1000 | 18 | 16 | 1.66 (1.44-1.91) | |
1000+ | 19 | 15 | 1.59 (1.41-1.78) | NS | ||
40 | Exclusive cigarettes | No | 32 | 27 | 1.67 (1.52-1.84) | |
Yes | 5 | 4 | 1.31 (1.19-1.45) | < 0.001 | ||
41, 42 | Lowest age considered | < 36 | 8 | 6 | 1.59 (1.19-2.14) | |
30-44 | 16 | 13 | 1.48 (1.35-1.62) | |||
45+ | 11 | 10 | 1.89 (1.68-2.12) | < 0.01 trend without missing < 0.01 | ||
Missing | 2 | 2 | 1.87 (1.54-2.28) | |||
43 | Yr of follow-up | < 10 | 3 | 3 | 2.13 (1.80-2.53) | |
10-< 20 | 22 | 17 | 1.69 (1.52-1.89) | |||
20-< 30 | 7 | 6 | 1.43 (1.29-1.60) | |||
30+ | 5 | 5 | 1.44 (1.10-1.89) | < 0.001 trend < 0.001 | ||
44 | Endpoint | Died | 16 | 13 | 1.60 (1.41-1.81) | |
Diagnosed | 21 | 18 | 1.63 (1.46-1.83) | NS | ||
45 | Number of adjustment factors | None | 7 | 7 | 1.32 (1.08-1.62) | |
Age only | 4 | 3 | 1.70 (1.31-2.20) | |||
More | 26 | 21 | 1.69 (1.53-1.88) | < 0.1 | ||
46 | Disease definition standard | No | 20 | 18 | 1.68 (1.51-1.88) | |
Yes | 17 | 13 | 1.55 (1.36-1.77) | NS |
Table 7 Comparison of meta-analysis relative risks for ischaemic heart disease in this study and in other publications
Ref. | Region | What is smoked | Comparison groupa | RR (95%CI) males | RR (95%CI) females | RR (95%CI) any |
Woodward et al[17], 2005 | Asia-Pacific | Cigarettes | Non | 1.56 (1.44-1.70) | 1.73 (1.50-2.01) | 1.60 (1.49-1.72) |
Woodward et al[18], 2005 | Asia, Australia, New Zealand | Cigarettes | Non | 1.86 (1.69-2.06) | ||
Nakamura et al[16], 2009 | Asia | Undefined | Never | 1.97 (1.66-2.33) | ||
Huxley et al[19], 2011 | Any | Cigarettes | Non | 1.72 (1.57-1.88) | 1.92 (1.66-2.23) | 1.79 (1.61-1.98) |
Mons et al[15], 2015 | Any | Undefined | Never | 1.80 (1.51-2.15) | 2.26 (1.98-2.59) | 2.03 (1.63-2.54)b |
Lee et al[5], 2017c | North America, Europe, Asia | Cigarettesd | Never | 1.99 (1.81-2.19) | 2.12 (1.87-2.40) | 2.05 (1.90-2.21) |
Colpani et al[13], 2018 | Any | Cigarettese | Never | 3.12 (2.15-4.52) | ||
Hackshaw et al[14], 2018 | Any | 20 cigarettes per day | Never | 2.04 (1.86-2.24) | 2.84 (2.21-3.64) | 2.34 (1.96-2.79) |
Lee et al[11], 2018c | Japan | Cigarettesd | Never | 1.98 (1.74-2.25) | 2.59 (2.06-3.27) | 2.21 (1.96-2.50) |
This meta-analysis | North America, Europe, Japan | Cigarettes | Never | 1.86 (1.53-2.26) | 2.23 (1.86-2.69) | 2.01 (1.84-2.21) |
Table 8 Comparison of meta-analysis relative risks for stroke in this study and in other publications
Ref. | Region | What is smoked | Comparison groupa | RR (95%CI) males | RR (95%CI) females | RR (95%CI) any |
Woodward et al[17], 2005 | Asia-Pacific | Cigarettes | Non | 1.29 (1.20-1.38) | 1.42 (1.26-1.62) | 1.32 (1.24-1.40) |
Nakamura et al[16], 2009 | Asia | Undefined | Never | 1.34 (1.12-1.48) | ||
Peters et al[22], 2013 | Any | Cigarettes | Non | 1.67 (1.49-1.88) | 1.83 (1.58-2.12) | 1.73 (1.58-1.89) |
Chen et al[20], 2014 | Western | Cigarettes | Never | 2.27 (1.76-2.93) | ||
Mons et al[15], 2015 | Any | Undefined | Never | 1.44 (1.23-1.68) | 1.78 (1.46-2.17) | 1.59 (1.29-1.95)b |
Lee et al[5], 2017 | North America, Europe, Asia | Cigarettesc | Never | 1.42 (1.29-1.56) | 1.54 (1.33-1.78) | 1.48 (1.37-1.60) |
Wang et al[23], 2017 | China | Undefined | Undefined | 1.53 (1.06-2.20)b | ||
Colpani et al[13], 2018 | Any | Cigarettesd | Never | 2.09 (1.51-2.89) | ||
Hackshaw et al[14], 2018 | Any | 20 cigarettes per day | Never | 1.64 (1.48-1.82) | 2.16 (1.69-2.75) | 1.90 (1.54-2.35) |
Lee et al[11], 2018 | Japan | Cigarettesc | Never | 1.32 (1.16-1.51) | 1.50 (1.16-1.94) | 1.40 (1.25-1.57) |
Pan et al[21], 2019 | Any | Cigarettesc | Nevere | 1.54 (1.11-2.13) | 1.88 (1.45-2.44) | 1.92 (1.49-2.48) |
This meta-analysis | North America, Europe, Japan | Cigarettes | Never | 1.48 (1.21-1.80) | 1.66 (1.39-1.99) | 1.62 (1.48-1.77) |
- Citation: Lee PN, Coombs KJ, Hamling JS. Evidence relating cigarettes, cigars and pipes to cardiovascular disease and stroke: Meta-analysis of recent data from three regions. World J Meta-Anal 2023; 11(6): 290-312
- URL: https://www.wjgnet.com/2308-3840/full/v11/i6/290.htm
- DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.13105/wjma.v11.i6.290