Diabetic retinopathy: A review on its pathophysiology and novel treatment modalities

Figure 1 Pathophysiologic process of diabetic retinopathy. Ang: Angiotensin; IGF: Insulin-like growth factor; VEGF: Vascular endothelial growth factor.

Figure 2 Sorbitol pathway. NADP: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; NADPH: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen.

Figure 3 Pathway of oxidative stress on the development of diabetic complications. ECM: Extracellular matrix; PKCβ: Protein kinase C beta; VEGF: Vascular endothelial growth factor.

Figure 4 Regulation of pathophysiological processes in diabetic retinopathy by protein kinase C. H₂O₂: Hydrogen peroxide; Meⁿ⁺: Methyl Cation; O₂ˉ: Oxygen superoxide anion radical; OH.: Oxygen hydroxyl radical; ROOH: Hydroperoxides.

Figure 5 Optical coherence tomography images. A: Cystoid macular edema; B: Tractional retinal detachment; C: Tractional retinal detachment due to vitreous hemorrhage.

Figure 6 Fundus. A: All suggestive findings of severe non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy; B: Severe proliferative diabetic retinopathy; C: Pan-retinal photocoagulation laser marks.

Figure 7 How artificial intelligence software assesses diabetic retinopathy into referable and non-referable interventions. NPDR; Non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy; PDR: Proliferative diabetic retinopathy.