Vascular calcification: When should we interfere in chronic kidney disease patients and how?

Table 1 Different therapeutic interventions used to prevent or withhold vascular calcification progression

CKD stage	Risk factor	Type off interference	Outcome	Ref.
Traditional Risk factors
G1-G5	Cigarette smoking	Cessation	No evidence	[202]
G1-G5	Overweight	Decrease calorie intake	No evidence	[202]
G1-G5	Sedentary life	Muscle excercise	No evidence	[202]
G1-G5	Diabetes mellitus	Blood sugar control	Improves survival	[204]
			Delays CKD progression	[205]
G1-G5	Systemic hypertension	Blood pressure control	Delays CKD progression	[206]
G1-G5	Dyslipidemia	Statins	Decreased CV morbidity	[221]
CKD Related Risk factors
G2-G5	↑	Dietary phosphate restriction	↓ FGF23	[222]
G3b-G4	Hyperphosphatemia	Sevelamer	↓ VC, ↓ mortality	[226]
G5		Preemptive kidney Tx	↓ VC, ↓ mortality	[52,295]
Incident G5D	Hyperphosphatemia	Sevelamer	↓ VC, ↓ mortality (borderline)	[231]
Prevalent G5D	Hyperphosphatemia	Sevelamer or L.C.	↓ VC	[232,240,251]
Prevalent G5D > 65 yr	Hyperphosphatemia	Sevelamer or L.C.	↓ VC, ↓ mortality	[240,251]

CKD: Chronic kidney disease.