Endothelial dysfunction in the kidney transplant population: Current evidence and management strategies

Table 1 Important biomarkers of endothelial dysfunction belonging to various functional groups

Functional group	Biomarkers
Oxidative stress	NADPH oxidase, ROS
Acute phase proteins	IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and its receptors, MCP-1, CRP, and SAA
Cell-adhesion molecules	ICAM-1, VCAM-1, e-selectin, p-selectin
Proteins modified by post-translational modification	OxLDL, OxHDL, carbamylated LDL, AGE, RAGE
Glycocalyx damage	Syndexan-1, endocan
Vascular tone	Endothelin-1, angiotensin II, resistin
Metabolizes catecholamines	Renalase
eNOS uncoupling	ADMA, SDMA
Thrombosis	PAI-1, angiopoietin-2, vWF, TF, soluble thrombomodulin, thromboxane A2, d-dimer, factor VIII, homocysteine
Marker of angiogenesis and hyperpermeability	VEGF-A, TGF-β1, PlGF
Marker of endothelial proliferation and apoptosis	Circulating endothelial cells
Membranous particles released from endothelial cells	Endothelial microvesicles
Endothelial-protective molecules	NO, klotho, sirtuins, Nrf2, PGI2
Others	miRNA, gut microbiota-derived metabolites, suPAR

ADMA: Asymmetric dimethylarginine; AGE: Advanced glycation end products; CRP: C-reactive protein; ICAM: Intercellular adhesion molecule; IL: Interleukin; MCP-1: Membrane cofactor protein-1; miRNA: Micro RNA; NADPH oxidase: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide oxidase; NO: Nitric oxide; Nrf2: Nuclear factor erythroid 2 related factor; OxLDL: Oxidized low-density lipoprotein; OxHDL: Oxidized high-density lipoprotein; PAI-1: Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1; PGI2: Prostaglandin I2; PlGF: Placental growth factor; RAGE: Receptors of advanced glycation end products; ROS: Reactive oxygen species; SAA: Serum amyloid A; SDMA: Symmetric dimethylarginine; suPAR: Soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor; TF: Tissue factor; TGF: Transforming growth factor; TNF: Tumor necrosis factor; VCAM: Vascular adhesion molecule; VEGF: Vascular endothelial growth factor; vWF: von Willebrand factor.