Life after recovery from SARS, influenza, and Middle East respiratory syndrome: An insight into possible long-term consequences of COVID-19

Table 1 General complications and long-term manifestations associated with SARS, Middle East respiratory syndrome, and influenza

System	Clinical and Image manifestation
Respiratory system	CT Ground-glass opacities and interstitial thickening
	Reduced lung function
	Low DLCO, VC and FVC
Musculoskeletal system	Chronic fatigue
	Myalgias
	Avascular necrosis of the hip
Neurologic system	Guillain-barré syndrome
	Miller fisher syndrome
	Gustatory and olfactory dysfunction
	Neurologic disease exacerbation
Mental disorders	PTSD
	Depression
	Anxiety
	Burnout

CT: Computed tomography; DLCO: Diffusion capacity of carbon monoxide; VC: Vital capacity; FVC: Functional vital capacity; PTSD: Post traumatic stress disorder.

Table 2 Common respiratory system long-term manifestations associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome, Middle East respiratory syndrome, and influenza

Diagnosis	Clinical Manifestation
SARS	Interstitial thickening, traction bronchiectasis[1]
	Decreased exercise tolerance[2]
	Pulmonary ground-glass opacities, consolidations, pulmonary fibrosis[4,5]
MERS	Pulmonary ground-glass opacities, consolidation and pulmonary fibrosis[12,13]
Influenza	Lung interstitial abnormalities and fibrosis, restrictive and obstructive function patterns[21]
	Reduced exercise capacity[23]

MERS: Middle East respiratory syndrome; SARS: Severe acute respiratory syndrome.

Table 3 Common chronic musculoskeletal disorders associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome

Diagnosis	Clinical manifestation
SARS	Avascular necrosis of the hip and knee[25,28-31]
	Diffuse myalgia[32]
	Weakness
	Persistent fatigue[33]
	Non-restorative sleep

SARS: Severe acute respiratory syndrome.

Table 4 Neurologic and mental chronic manifestations associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome, Middle East respiratory syndrome, and influenza

Diagnosis	Clinical manifestation
SARS/COVID-19	Gustatory and olfactory dysfunction[41]
	Miller-fisher syndrome
	Exacerbation of neurologic diseases
	Depression, anxiety, PTSD[42]
	Chronic fatigue[46]
	Burnout, psychological distress[47]
MERS	Encephalitis and guillain-barre syndrome[38]
Influenza	Encephalitis, seizures, headache

COVID-19: Coronavirus disease 2019; MERS: Middle East respiratory syndrome; PTSD: Post traumatic stress disorder; SARS: Severe acute respiratory syndrome.