Post-acute COVID-19 gastrointestinal sequelae: Mechanisms of persistent dysbiosis, intestinal barrier dysfunction, and emerging long-COVID phenotypes

Figure 1 Integrated pathophysiological mechanisms in post-acute coronavirus disease-19 gastrointestinal dysbiosis. Arrow style denotes the strength of evidence: Solid arrows indicate direct human (long-coronavirus disease) evidence; dashed arrows indicate experimental or preclinical evidence; and dotted arrows indicate hypothesized relationships. COVID: Coronavirus disease; SARS-CoV-2: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; LPS: Lipopolysaccharide; SCFA: Short-chain fatty acid; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha; IL: Interleukin.