Biomarkers for tracking metabolic changes pre-post nutritional epigenetics diet/intervention to prevent autism and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorders in children

Table 1 Western prenatal dietary pattern associated with any neurodevelopmental diagnosis (P = 0.002), autism (P = 0.002), and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorders (P = 0.002)

High prenatal intake of ultra-processed foods positively associated with any neurodevelopmental diagnosis	Low prenatal intake of nutrient-rich foods positively associated with any neurodevelopmental diagnosis
Animal fats	Fruit
Refined grains	Fish
High energy drinks	Vegetables
Spices	Dried fruit
High fat dairy	Tomatoes
Snacks	Water
Red meat	Green leafy vegetables
Cheese	Nuts
Fruit syrup and marmalade	Beans, lentils
Processed meat	Shellfish
Potato products	Poultry
Eggs	Whole grains

Table 2 Food ingredients with allowable or known heavy metal content

Potentially harmful dietary ingredients or chemicals	Allowable or known heavy metal content with reference	May contribute to autism and/or ADHD
Bleaching agent for flour (chlorine)	Hg[54]	Autism
HFCS	Hg[41]	Autism
Tartrazine (yellow 5, E-102)	As ≤ 3 ppm[55]	Autism; ADHD
	Pb ≤ 10 ppm[55]
	Hg ≤ 1 ppm[55]
Sunset yellow (yellow 6, E-110)	As ≤ 3 ppm[55]	Autism; ADHD
	Pb ≤ 10 ppm[55]
	Hg ≤ 1 ppm[55]
Sodium benzoate	Pb ≤ 2 ppm[56]	Autism; ADHD
Beta carotene, synthetic	Pb ≤ 10 ppm[57]	Autism; ADHD
	As ≤ 3 ppm[57]
Caramel	As ≤ 3 ppm[58]	Autism; ADHD
	Pb ≤ 10 ppm[58]
	Hg ≤ 0.1 ppm[58]
Sodium nitrite	Pb ≤ 2 ppm[59]	Autism; ADHD
Calcium chloride	Pb ≤ 2 ppm[60]	Autism; ADHD
Carrageenan	As ≤ 3 ppm [61]	Autism; ADHD
	Cd ≤ 2 ppm[61]
	Pb ≤ 5 ppm[61]
	Hg ≤ 1 ppm[61]

ADHD: Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorders; HFCS: High fructose corn syrup; Hg: Mercury; As: Arsenic; Pb: Lead; Cd: Cadmium; ppm: Parts per million.