Positive childhood experiences and their association with behavioral problems in Thai early adolescents

Table 1 Demographic characteristics of adolescents and their caregivers, n (%)

Demographic characteristics	Results, n = 540
Age in years	11.43 ± 1.16
Sex
Male	244 (45.2)
Female	296 (54.8)
Education: Grade
Upper primary school: 4-6	280 (51.9)
Junior high school: 7-9	260 (48.1)
School type
Public school	272 (50.4)
Private school	268 (49.6)
GPAX
2.01-3.00	121 (22.4)
> 3.00	419 (77.6)
Physical health problems
No	494 (91.5)
Yes	46 (8.5)
Caregiver’s age in years
31-40	156 (28.9)
41-50	355 (65.7)
> 50	29 (5.4)
Caregiver’s sex
Male	54 (10.0)
Female	486 (90.0)
Caregiver’s marital status
Married	516 (95.6)
Divorce	24 (4.4)
Relationship with child
Mother	476 (88.1)
Father	43 (8.0)
Others	21 (3.9)
Father’s educational level
Below a bachelor’s degree	53 (9.8)
Bachelor’s degree and above	487 (90.2)
Mother’s educational level
Below a bachelor’s degree	69 (12.8)
Bachelor’s degree and above	471 (87.2)
Father’s occupation
Government employee	218 (40.4)
Private company employee	322 (59.6)
Mother’s occupation
Government employee	146 (27.0)
Private company employee	389 (72.0)
Unemployed	5 (0.9)
Family monthly income
617-1544 United States dollars1	57 (10.6)
> 1544 United States dollars1	483 (89.4)
Caregiver’s physical health problems	17 (3.1)
Caregiver’s mental health problems	29 (5.4)

¹1 United States dollar = 32.39 Thai Bahts.

GPAX: Cumulative grade-point average.

Table 2 Univariate logistic regression results for the association between demographic characteristics and risk or problematic behavioral and emotional problems¹

Factors	Risk or problematic behavioral and emotional problem
	Emotional problem	Conduct problem	Hyperactive problem	Peer problem	Prosocial behavior
Child’s factor
Sex
Male	Reference
Female	0.814 (0.542, 1.222); 0.321	0.653 (0.429, 0.994); 0.047a	0.732 (0.483, 1.109); 0.141a	1.028 (0.628, 1.684); 0.912	0.750 (0.453, 1.240); 0.262
Education
Upper primary school	Reference
Junior high school	1.100 (0.733, 1.651); 0.645	1.098 (0.722, 1.669); 0.663	1.074 (0.709, 1.626); 0.736	0.903 (0.552, 1.476); 0.683	0.732 (0.440, 1.217); 0.229
School type
Public school	Reference
Private school	0.896 (0.597, 1.345); 0.597	0.848 (0.558, 1.291); 0.443	0.761 (0.501, 1.154); 0.199a	0.791 (0.483, 1.295); 0.352	1.017 (0.616, 1.681); 0.947
GPAX
2.01-3.00	Reference
> 3.00	0.408 (0.261, 0.639); < 0.001a	0.534 (0.336, 0.853); 0.009a	0.427 (0.271, 0.674); < 0.001a	0.548 (0.321, 0.936); 0.028a	0.886 (0.492, 1.595); 0.686
Physical health problems
No	Reference
Yes	1.261 (0.632, 2.520); 0.511	1.094 (0.525, 2.281); 0.810	1.208 (0.593, 2.461); 0.603	0.751 (0.287, 1.967); 0.560	1.467 (0.654, 3.289); 0.352
Caregiver and family factors
Caregiver’s age in years
31-40	Reference
41-50	1.003 (0.629, 1.599); 0.990	0.955 (0.595, 1.534); 0.850	1.106 (0.689, 1.776); 0.676	1.073 (0.606, 1.900); 0.808	0.698 (0.405, 1.205); 0.197a
> 50	4.152 (1.818, 9.479); 0.001a	2.464 (1.056, 5.748); 0.037a	1.890 (0.783, 4.564); 0.157a	3.245 (1.291, 8.154); 0.012a	1.435 (0.529, 3.893); 0.478
Caregiver’s sex
Male	Reference
Female	0.585 (0.317, 1.082); 0.087	1.140 (0.554, 2.344); 0.722	0.731 (0.383, 1.396); 0.343	0.667 (0.320, 1.392); 0.281	0.474 (0.236, 0.953); 0.036a
Caregiver’s marital status
Married	Reference
Divorce	15.614 (5.693, 42.820); < 0.001a	8.979 (3.733, 21.596); < 0.001a	13.295 (5.140, 34.389) < 0.001a	3.409 (1.404, 8.278); 0.007a	11.500 (4.878, 27.111); < 0.001
Relationship with child
Mother	Reference
Father	1.792 (0.913, 3.519); 0.090a	0.905 (0.407, 2.014); 0.806	1.512 (0.749, 3.054); 0.248	1.526 (0.677, 3.442); 0.308	1.908 (0.871, 4.180); 0.107a
Others	1.160 (0.415, 3.243); 0.777	1.583 (0.598, 4.189); 0.355	0.919 (0.302, 2.795); 0.882	1.571 (0.512, 4.822); 0.430	1.201 (0.343, 4.204); 0.774
Father’s educational level
Below a bachelor’s degree	Reference
Bachelor’s degree and above	0.355 (0.197, 0.640); 0.001a	0.411 (0.224, 0.754); 0.004a	0.226 (0.126, 0.406); < 0.001	0.349 (0.181, 0.673); 0.002a	0.604 (0.288, 1.265); 0.182a
Mother’s educational level
Less than Bachelor’s	Reference
More than a Bachelor’s	0.286 (0.169, 0.484); < 0.001a	0.309 (0.181, 0.528); < 0.001a	0.179 (0.105, 0.305); < 0.001a	0.265 (0.148, 0.475); < 0.001a	0.352 (0.191, 0.647); 0.001a
Father’s occupation
Public sector	Reference
Private sector	0.658 (0.437, 0.990); 0.045a	0.670 (0.439, 1.021); 0.062a	1.029 (0.674, 1.572); 0.894	0.872 (0.531, 1.432); 0.588	0.778 (0.469, 1.289); 0.330
Mother’s occupation
Public sector	Reference
Private sector	0.972 (0.616, 1.533); 0.902	0.930 (0.583, 1.486); 0.763	1.394 (0.852, 2.281); 0.186	0.918 (0.532, 1.587); 0.760	0.838 (0.482, 1.455); 0.530
Unemployed	0.856 (0.092, 7.924); 0.891	0.927 (0.100, 8.598); 0.947	1.210 (0.130, 11.289); 0.867	1.488 (0.158, 13.972); 0.728	1.488 (0.158, 13.972); 0.728
Family monthly income (per month)
$617-$1544	Reference
> $1544	0.189 (0.107, 0.335); < 0.001a	0.212 (0.120, 0.375); < 0.001a	0.132 (0.074, 0.237); < 0.001	0.284 (0.152, 0.530); < 0.001a	0.290 (0.154, 0.547); < 0.001a
Caregiver’s physical health problems	0.744 (0.210, 2.631); 0.646	0.833 (0.235, 2.952); 0.777	0.805 (0.227, 2.849); 0.736	1.364 (0.382, 4.866); 0.632	0.411 (0.054, 3.150); 0.392
Caregiver’s mental health problems	-2	10.395 (4.583, 23.578); < 0.001a	22.760 (8.455, 61.267); < 0.001a	4.346 (1.962, 9.624); < 0.001a	4.682 (2.109, 10.395); < 0.001a
PCEs
Mentorship	0.072 (0.043, 0.121); < 0.001a	0.216 (0.133, 0.352); < 0.001a	0.101 (0.061, 0.166); < 0.001a	0.217 (0.127, 0.371); < 0.001a	0.076 (0.043, 0.133); < 0.001a
Family resilience	0.107 (0.065, 0.175); < 0.001a	0.237 (0.146, 0.383); < 0.001a	0.120 (0.074, 0.196); < 0.001a	0.233 (0.137, 0.398); < 0.001a	0.155 (0.090, 0.266); < 0.001a
Safe neighborhood	0.504 (0.321, 0.792); 0.003	0.385 (0.244, 0.607); < 0.001a	0.476 (0.301, 0.753); 0.001a	0.548 (0.321, 0.936); 0.028a	0.744 (0.420, 1.316); 0.310
Supportive neighborhood	0.358 (0.223, 0.576); < 0.001a	0.470 (0.294, 0.751); 0.002a	0.423 (0.263, 0.678); < 0.001a	0.729 (0.433, 1.227); 0.234	0.694 (0.405, 1.187); 0.182a
Afterschool activity	0.623 (0.413, 0.940); 0.024a	0.613 (0.401, 0.937); 0.024a	0.715 (0.469, 1.089); 0.118a	0.573 (0.350, 0.939); 0.027a	0.474 (0.285, 0.786); 0.004a
Volunteerism	0.490 (0.298, 0.806); < 0.005a	0.726 (0.450, 1.174); 0.192	0.441 (0.261, 0.744); 0.002a	0.862 (0.498, 1.495); 0.598	1.021 (0.590, 1.766); 0.942
Share ideas with the caregiver	0.059 (0.030, 0.116); < 0.001a	0.126 (0.070, 0.227); < 0.001a	0.041 (0.020, 0.084); < 0.001a	0.135 (0.073, 0.248); < 0.001a	0.149 (0.081, 0.276); < 0.001a
Number of PCEs ≥ 4	0.048 (0.028, 0.081); < 0.001a	0.116 (0.071, 0.187); < 0.001a	0.057 (0.034, 0.096); < 0.001a	0.249 (0.147, 0.422); < 0.001a	0.154 (0.090, 0.264); < 0.001a

^aP < 0.2, potential significant factor, which will be included in multivariable logistic regression models.

¹Data are presented as the odds ratio (95% confidence interval).

²Without emotional problems, caregivers with mental health problems. This represents complete separation in the data. Because of this, logistic regression could not produce a valid odds ratio due to infinite estimates.

GPAX: Cumulative grade-point average; PCEs: Positive childhood experiences.

Table 3 Multivariable logistic regression results for the association between demographic characteristics and risk or problematic behavioral and emotional problems¹

Factors	Risk or problematic behavioral and emotional problems
	Emotional problem	Conduct problem	Hyperactive problem	Peer problem	Prosocial behavior
Child’s factor
Sex
Male	-	Reference		-	-
Female	-	0.704 (0.427, 1.160); 0.168	0.884 (0.485, 1.613); 0.688	-	-
School type
Public school	-	-	Reference	-	-
Private school	-	-	1.286 (0.650, 2.541); 0.470	-	-
GPAX
2.01-3.00	Reference				-
> 3.00	0.441 (0.213, 0.913); 0.027a	0.993 (0.543, 1.818); 0.983	0.792 (0.390, 1.609); 0.519	0.862 (0.447, 1.663); 0.658	-
Caregiver and family factors
Caregiver’s age in years
31-40	Reference
41-50	0.956 (0.469, 1.949); 0.902	1.018 (0.581, 1.785); 0.905	1.621 (0.808, 3.251); 0.174	1.223 (0.635, 2.354); 0.548	0.542 (0.268, 1.093); 0.087
> 50	17.098 (1.971, 148.291); 0.010a	1.900 (0.629, 5.744); 0.255	0.702 (0.149, 3.309); 0.655	2.842 (0.957, 8.438); 0.060	1.876 (0.343, 10.264); 0.468
Caregiver’s sex
Male	Reference	-	-		-
Female	3.154 (0.150, 66.287); 0.460	-	-		-
Caregiver’s marital status
Married	Reference				-
Divorce	2.906 (0.363, 23.258); 0.315	2.599 (0.847, 7.971); 0.095	1.871 (0.394, 8.875); 0.430	1.079 (0.338, 3.444); 0.898	-
Relationship with child
Mother	Reference	-	-	-	-
Father	2.657 (0.112, 63.297); 0.546	-	-	-	-
Others	0.303 (0.031, 2.935); 0.303	-	-	-	-
Father’s educational level
Less than Bachelor’s	Reference
More than a Bachelor’s	1.219 (0.219, 6.796); 0.822	1.613 (0.483, 5.384); 0.437	1.003 (0.283, 3.556); 0.997	1.197 (0.378, 3.795); 0.760	0.604 (0.348, 1.278); 0.124
Mother’s educational level
Less than Bachelor’s	Reference
More than a Bachelor’s	1.744 (0.288, 10.547); 0.544	1.156 (0.341, 3.916); 0.816	0.379 (0.106, 1.354); 0.135	0.351 (0.110, 1.122); 0.77	0.354 (0.089, 1.417); 0.142
Father’s occupation
Public sector	Reference		-	-	-
Private sector	0.567 (0.292, 1.099); 0.093	0.634 (0.374, 1.075); 0.091	-	-	-
Mother’s occupation
Public sector	-	-	Reference	-	-
Private sector	-	-	0.968 (0.473, 1.984); 0.930	-	-
Unemployed	-	-	0.178 (0.005, 6.711); 0.351	-	-
Family monthly income
$617-$1544	Reference
> $1544	0.536 (0.096, 2.985); 0.476	0.449 (0.136, 1.484); 0.189	0.450 (0.120, 1.685); 0.236	1.744 (0.487, 6.241); 0.392	1.238 (0.290, 5.280); 0.773
Caregiver’s mental health problems	-	2.319 (0.820, 6.553); 0.113	6.077 (1.394, 26.490); 0.016a	1.468 (0.510, 4.228); 0.477	0.768 (0.232, 2.543); 0.666
PCEs
Mentorship	0.140 (0.062, 0.316); < 0.001a	0.646 (0.318, 1.315); 0.228	0.350 (0.158, 0.772); 0.009a	0.359 (0.172, 0.749); 0.006a	0.091 (0.042, 0.198); < 0.001a
Family resilience	0.390 (0.166, 0.916); 0.031a	0.789 (0.380, 1.639); 0.525	0.375 (0.168, 0.836); 0.016a	0.322 (0.154, 0.672); 0.003a	0.278 (0.122, 0.633); 0.002a
Safe neighborhood	1.839 (0.693, 4.882); 0.221	0.657 (0.339, 1.274); 0.214	1.410 (0.571, 3.480); 0.456	0.645 (0.310, 1.344); 0.242	-
Supportive neighborhood	0.460 (0.218, 0.972); 0.042a	0.710 (0.395, 1.275); 0.251	0.591 (0.287, 1.218); 0.154	-	0.749 (0.355, 1.582); 0.449
Afterschool activity	0.790 (0.386, 1.618); 0.520	0.853 (0.486, 1.496); 0.578	1.025 (0.502, 2.094); 0.945	0.489 (0.267, 0.897); 0.021a	0.317 (0.157, 0.642); 0.001a
Volunteerism	1.010 (0.471, 2.163); 0.980	1.354 (0.743, 2.467); 0.322	0.738 (0.345, 1.581); 0.434	-	-
Share ideas with the caregiver	0.132 (0.050, 0.351); < 0.01a	0.226 (0.105, 0.488); < 0.01a	0.066 (0.026, 0.167); < 0.001a	0.217 (0.101, 0.468); < 0.001a	0.294 (0.123, 0.707); 0.006a
Number of PCEs ≥ 4	0.256 (0.079, 0.830); 0.023a	0.400 (0.158, 1.015); 0.054	0.324 (0.107, 0.982); 0.046a	2.039 (0.816, 5.092); 0.127	2.165 (0.794, 5.898); 0.131

^aP < 0.05, factors that were statistically significant; data were not included due to P > 0.2 in the univariate logistic regression analysis.

¹Data are presented as the odds ratio (95% confidence interval).

GPAX: Cumulative grade-point average; PCEs: Positive childhood experiences.