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Publication Name
World Journal of Orthopedics
ISSN
2218-5836
Publisher of This Article
Baishideng Publishing Group Inc, 7041 Koll Center Parkway, Suite 160, Pleasanton, CA 94566, USA

Observational Study
Copyright: ©Author(s) 2026.
World J Orthop. May 18, 2026; 17(5): 116330
Published online May 18, 2026. doi: 10.5312/wjo.v17.i5.116330
Table 1 Comparison of upper limb composition and bone health between young men with low and high Bone mineral density, mean ± SD
Low BMD (n = 20)
High BMD (n = 20)
P value
Left arm fat mass (g)775.52 ± 187.44945.71 ± 204.81P < 0.01
Left arm lean mass (g)2437.27 ± 242.932799.55 ± 207.82P < 0.001
Left arm fat-free mass (g)2570.06 ± 254.902978.19 ± 214.54P < 0.001
Left arm overall mass (g)3345.57 ± 367.093923.88 ± 280.80P < 0.001
Left arm fat percentage (%)23.01 ± 3.8224.00 ± 4.22P > 0.05
Left arm bone area (cm2)188.31 ± 19.68215.56 ± 13.94P < 0.001
Left arm bone mineral content (g)132.78 ± 13.95178.64 ± 11.57P < 0.001
Left arm bone mineral density (g/cm2)0.71 ± 0.020.83 ± 0.04P < 0.001
Right arm fat mass (g)809.96 ± 185.04961.33 ± 206.73P < 0.05
Right arm lean mass (g)2626.84 ± 270.642943.33 ± 215.95P < 0.001
Right arm fat-free mass (g)2770.35 ± 289.093133.26 ± 225.25P < 0.001
Right arm overall mass (g)3580.31 ± 394.884094.58 ± 286.08P < 0.001
Right arm fat percentage (%)22.49 ± 3.7423.39 ± 4.11P > 0.05
Right arm bone area (cm2)197.79 ± 23.06222.01 ± 15.34P < 0.001
Right arm bone mineral content (g)143.50 ± 20.20189.93 ± 15.05P < 0.001
Right arm bone mineral density (g/cm2)0.72 ± 0.030.86 ± 0.05P < 0.001
BMD: Bone mineral density.
Full Size Table
Table 2 Comparison of lower limb composition and bone health between young men with low and high bone mineral density, mean ± SD
Low BMD (n = 20)
High BMD (n = 20)
P value
Left leg fat mass (g)2825.66 ± 625.643346.23 ± 627.28P < 0.05
Left leg lean mass (g)7619.47 ± 828.718884.63 ± 820.32P < 0.001
Left leg fat-free mass (g)8002.67 ± 855.979427.94 ± 849.47P < 0.001
Left leg overall mass (g)10828.33 ± 1318.7512774.16 ± 1239.72P < 0.001
Left leg fat percentage (%)25.89 ± 3.5726.08 ± 3.26P > 0.05
Left leg bone area (cm2)352.07 ± 29.48391.29 ± 23.73P < 0.001
Left leg bone mineral content (g)383.19 ± 34.93543.32 ± 41.48P < 0.001
Left leg bone mineral density (g/cm2)1.09 ± 0.041.39 ± 0.06P < 0.001
Right leg fat mass (g)2859.92 ± 595.833435.14 ± 708.40P < 0.01
Right leg lean mass (g)7871.40 ± 846.449016.27 ± 896.31P < 0.001
Right leg fat-free mass (g)8257.29 ± 879.059553.59 ± 929.81P < 0.001
Right leg overall mass (g)11117.22 ± 1309.9212988.73 ± 1414.73P < 0.001
Right leg fat percentage (%)25.57 ± 3.2726.29 ± 3.32P > 0.05
Right leg bone area (cm2)351.01 ± 34.09388.82 ± 24.78P < 0.001
Right leg bone mineral content (g)385.90 ± 41.86537.32 ± 45.80P < 0.001
Right leg bone mineral density (g/cm2)1.10 ± 0.041.38 ± 0.06P < 0.001
BMD: Bone mineral density.
Full Size Table
Table 3 Comparison of trunk composition and bone health between young men with low and high bone mineral density, mean ± SD
Low BMD (n = 20)
High BMD (n = 20)
P value
Trunk fat mass (g)6652.34 ± 1486.677915.93 ± 1333.12P < 0.01
Trunk lean mass (g)21137.79 ± 1743.0924192.21 ± 1778.35P < 0.001
Trunk bone mineral content (g)558.32 ± 43.96828.76 ± 49.82P < 0.001
Trunk fat-free mass (g)21696.12 ± 1773.1025020.98 ± 1789.99P < 0.001
Trunk overall mass (g)28348.46 ± 2740.0332936.90 ± 2463.52P < 0.001
Trunk fat percentage (%)23.31 ± 3.4424.55 ± 3.09P > 0.05
Left subcostal bone area (cm2)129.31 ± 12.73138.28 ± 12.35P < 0.05
Left subcostal bone mineral content (g)80.73 ± 8.93108.37 ± 13.76P < 0.001
Left subcostal bone mineral density (g/cm2)0.62 ± 0.030.78 ± 0.04P < 0.001
Right subcostal bone area (cm2)133.21 ± 15.68142.44 ± 12.28P < 0.05
Right subcostal bone mineral content (g)81.04 ± 10.62110.69 ± 11.10P < 0.001
Right subcostal bone mineral density (g/cm2)0.61 ± 0.040.78 ± 0.04P < 0.001
Thoracic vertebral bone area (cm2)126.90 ± 9.92138.77 ± 11.72P < 0.01
Thoracic vertebral bone mineral content (g)97.53 ± 10.83138.70 ± 13.19P < 0.001
Thoracic vertebral bone mineral density (g/cm2)0.77 ± 0.051.00 ± 0.06P < 0.001
Lumbar vertebral bone area (cm2)60.09 ± 5.7565.47 ± 8.49P < 0.05
Lumbar vertebral bone mineral content (g)58.20 ± 7.4178.39 ± 10.03P < 0.001
Lumbar vertebral bone mineral density (g/cm2)0.97 ± 0.081.20 ± 0.09P < 0.001
Pelvic bone area (cm2)235.37 ± 23.82286.78 ± 18.20P < 0.001
Pelvic bone mineral content (g)240.84 ± 22.26392.60 ± 32.14P < 0.001
Pelvic bone mineral density (g/cm2)1.03 ± 0.061.37 ± 0.10P < 0.001
BMD: Bone mineral density.
Full Size Table
Table 4 Comparison of total body composition and bone health between young men with low and high bone mineral density, mean ± SD
Low BMD (n = 20)
High BMD (n = 20)
P value
Height (cm)176.15 ± 5.16178.60 ± 5.17P > 0.05
Age-matched Z scores-1.95 ± 0.980.73 ± 0.33P < 0.001
Fat mass (g)15138.68 ± 2934.4417934.59 ± 2931.64P < 0.01
Lean mass (g)44836.51 ± 3899.5451262.15 ± 3581.27P < 0.001
Fat-free mass (g)46847.82 ± 4038.8254071.30 ± 3655.75P < 0.001
Overall mass (g)61986.49 ± 6120.1672005.89 ± 5350.26P < 0.001
Fat percentage (%)24.28 ± 2.9524.84 ± 2.91P > 0.05
Bone area (cm2)2030.02 ± 146.482161.97 ± 140.96P < 0.01
Bone mineral content (g)2011.32 ± 169.172602.51 ± 233.95P < 0.001
Bone mineral density (g/cm2)0.99 ± 0.021.20 ± 0.05P < 0.001
BMD: Bone mineral density.
Full Size Table
Table 5 Comparison of lean mass distribution between young men with low and high bone mineral density, mean ± SD
Low BMD (n = 20)
High BMD (n = 20)
P value
Fat mass/height2 (kg/m2)4.85 ± 1.015.70 ± 0.88P < 0.01
Lean mass/height2 (kg/m2)14.41 ± 0.9116.19 ± 0.55P < 0.001
Limb lean mass/height2 (kg/m2)6.62 ± 0.487.46 ± 0.33P < 0.001
Muscle-to-bone ratio22.32 ± 1.1819.82 ± 2.01P < 0.001
Soft tissue-to-bone ratio29.85 ± 2.1226.79 ± 3.15P < 0.001
BMD: Bone mineral density.
Full Size Table
Table 6 Comparison of interlimb symmetry between young men with low and high bone mineral density, mean ± SD
Low BMD (n = 20)
High BMD (n = 20)
P value
Left-right upper limb fat-free mass difference (g)200.82 ± 124.93190.89 ± 96.91P > 0.05
Left-right lower limb fat-free mass difference (g)322.61 ± 255.12313.35 ± 222.26P > 0.05
Upper-to-lower limb fat-free mass ratio0.33 ± 0.020.32 ± 0.03P > 0.05
Upper-to-lower limb lean mass ratio0.33 ± 0.020.32 ± 0.03P > 0.05
Upper-to-lower limb overall mass ratio0.32 ± 0.020.31 ± 0.02P > 0.05
Upper-to-lower limb fat mass ratio0.28 ± 0.030.28 ± 0.03P > 0.05
BMD: Bone mineral density.
Full Size Table
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