Nutritional intake characteristics and glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus

Table 1 Comparison of macronutrient intake with recommended nutrient intakes in all patients, mean ± SD

Nutrient	Actual intake	Percentage of total calories (%)	Recommended nutrient intake	Percentage of total calories (%)	t value	P value	FDR-adjusted q value
Energy (kcal/day)	1998.07 ± 308.09		2135.60 ± 396.40	60	2.964	0.004	0.004
Carbohydrates (g/day)	280.40 ± 66.00	55.48 ± 6.32	320.34 ± 59.46	60	4.831	< 0.0001	< 0.0002
Protein (g/day)	62.62 ± 10.21	12.80 ± 2.74	80.09 ± 14.86	15	10.680	< 0.0001	< 0.0002
Fat (g/day)	69.55 ± 11.13	31.73 ± 5.25	59.32 ± 11.01	25	7.367	< 0.0001	< 0.0002

False discovery rate (FDR) adjustment was performed using the Benjamini-Hochberg procedure, with q < 0.05 denoting FDR-adjusted statistical significance. FDR: False discovery rate.

Table 2 Comparison of intake of vitamins with recommended nutrient intakes in all patients, mean ± SD

Nutrient	Actual intake	Recommended nutrient intake	t value	P value	FDR-adjusted q value
Vitamin A (μg RAE/day)	389.14 ± 130.82	704.80 ± 49.62	24.24	< 0.0001	< 0.0001
Vitamin D (μg/day)	7.70 ± 1.00	10.88 ± 1.91	16.31	< 0.0001	< 0.0001
Vitamin E (mg α-TE/day)	9.81 ± 3.28	14	33.42	< 0.0001	< 0.0001
Vitamin B1 (mg/day)	0.94 ± 0.20	1.30 ± 0.10	18.38	< 0.0001	< 0.0001
Vitamin B2 (mg/day)	0.70 ± 0.27	1.20	29.05	< 0.0001	< 0.0001
Vitamin C (mg/day)	63.24 ± 17.75	100	39.83	< 0.0001	< 0.0001

False discovery rate (FDR) adjustment was performed using the Benjamini-Hochberg procedure, with q < 0.05 denoting FDR-adjusted statistical significance. RAE: Retinol activity equivalents; α-TE: Alpha-tocopherol equivalents; FDR: False discovery rate.

Table 3 Comparison of mineral and dietary fiber intake with recommended nutrient intakes in all patients, mean ± SD

Nutrient	Actual intake	Recommended nutrient intake	t value	P value	FDR-adjusted q value
Ca (mg/day)	510.06 ± 173.37	800	32.89	< 0.0001	< 0.0001
P (mg/day)	687.02 ± 228.63	704.96 ± 11.68	0.886	0.377	0.377
Mg (mg/day)	159.70 ± 37.25	318.48 ± 4.22	46.5	< 0.0001	< 0.0002
Fe (mg/day)	15.36 ± 3.52	13.23 ± 3.09	4.785	< 0.0001	< 0.0002
Zn (mg/day)	9.63 ± 2.27	10.24 ± 1.76	2.337	0.021	0.024
Se (μg/day)	48.71 ± 10.39	60	52.44	< 0.0001	< 0.0002
Na (mg/day)	1867.94 ± 61.91	1482.40 ± 38.24	58.46	< 0.0001	< 0.0002
Dietary fiber (g/day)	10.44 ± 4.65	25	25.08	< 0.0001	< 0.0002

False discovery rate (FDR) adjustment was performed using the Benjamini-Hochberg procedure, with q < 0.05 denoting FDR-adjusted statistical significance. Ca: Calcium; P: Phosphorus; Mg: Magnesium; Zn: Zinc; Se: Selenium; Fe: Iron; Na: Sodium; FDR: False discovery rate.

Table 4 Comparison of energy and macronutrient intake in patients with different blood glucose levels, mean ± SD

	Carbohydrates		Protein		Fat		Total calories (kcal/day)
	Energy contribution (kcal/day)	Percentage (%)	Energy contribution (kcal/day)	Percentage (%)	Energy contribution (kcal/day)	Percentage (%)
Well-controlled group (n = 44)	917.92 ± 240.47	51.10 ± 7.04	244.53 ± 39.83	14.10 ± 3.08	609.03 ± 97.70	34.81 ± 5.81	1771.48 ± 268.11
Poorly controlled group (n = 81)	1232.24 ± 204.27	57.86 ± 4.36	253.72 ± 41.24	12.09 ± 2.26	635.19 ± 100.84	30.05 ± 4.07	2121.15 ± 254.77
t value	7.713	6.621	1.205	4.161	1.400	5.343	7.195
P value	< 0.0001	< 0.0001	0.231	< 0.0001	0.164	< 0.0001	< 0.0001
FDR-adjusted q value	< 0.0002	< 0.0002	0.231	< 0.0002	0.191	< 0.0002	< 0.0002

False discovery rate (FDR) adjustment was performed using the Benjamini-Hochberg procedure, with q < 0.05 denoting FDR-adjusted statistical significance. FDR: False discovery rate.

Table 5 Comparison of dietary intakes in patients with different blood glucose levels (g/day), mean ± SD

	Cereals and tubers	Vegetables	Fruits	Meat	Eggs	Fish/shrimps	Soybeans and nuts	Dairy	Cooking oil	Table salt
Well-controlled group (n = 44)	317.50 ± 97.54	304.34 ± 86.77	18.91 ± 9.26	80.36 ± 38.86	39.14 ± 12.10	72.50 ± 40.19	62.23 ± 23.04	70.84 ± 41.60	30.20 ± 10.28	5.25 ± 2.43
Poorly controlled group (n = 81)	304.05 ± 85.85	265.80 ± 69.77	32.57 ± 14.82	109.68 ± 62.09	37.36 ± 11.32	50.80 ± 24.66	71.65 ± 21.91	73.58 ± 21.45	40.84 ± 11.63	6.30 ± 2.63
t value	0.797	2.702	5.547	2.843	0.819	3.722	2.256	0.486	5.082	2.181
P value	0.427	0.008	< 0.0001	0.005	0.415	0.0003	0.026	0.628	< 0.0001	0.031
FDR-adjusted q value	0.474	0.016	< 0.0005	0.013	0.474	0.001	0.043	0.628	< 0.0005	0.004

All P values in this table represent exploratory univariate comparisons. False discovery rate (FDR) adjustment was performed using the Benjamini-Hochberg procedure, with q < 0.05 denoting FDR-adjusted statistical significance. FDR: False discovery rate.

Table 6 Comparison of demographic and clinical data, mean ± SD

	Well-controlled group (n = 44)	Poorly controlled group (n = 81)	t value	P value
Age (years)	52.36 ± 15.21	53.05 ± 14.84	0.683	0.496
Gender			0.559	0.455
Male	24	38
Female	20	43
BMI (kg/m2)	22.51 ± 3.90	24.44 ± 3.82	2.681	0.008
Duration of diabetes mellitus (years)	7.71 ± 4.43	8.08 ± 5.71	0.373	0.710
Marital status			0.952	0.621
Unmarried	5	12
Married	31	50
Divorced or widowed	8	19
Educational level			12.042	0.002
Elementary school and below	6	35
Junior and senior high school	14	21
High school or above	24	25
Clinical treatment regiment			9.687	0.008
Dietary control alone without OADs	15	51
OAD monotherapy	20	22
Combination OAD therapy	9	8
OAD class
Metformin	24	21	10.141	0.002
SGLT2 inhibitors	6	5		0.193
DPP-4 inhibitors	5	6		0.516
Sulfonylurea	3	6		0.999
Smoking history			0.286	0.593
Present	19	31
Absent	25	50
Total cholesterol (mmol/L)	3.91 ± 0.91	4.60 ± 1.16	3.367	0.001
Triglycerides (mmol/L)	1.64 ± 0.96	2.27 ± 2.53	1.594	0.114
Low density lipoprotein	2.38 ± 0.50	2.54 ± 0.66	1.427	0.156
High density lipoprotein	1.15 ± 0.27	1.08 ± 0.37	1.102	0.272

Oral antidiabetic drug classes were not mutually exclusive because patients receiving combination therapy could be included in more than one medication class. Fisher’s exact test was used when expected cell counts were < 5. SGLT2: Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2; DPP-4: Dipeptidyl peptidase-4; BMI: Body mass index; OAD: Oral antidiabetic drug.

Table 7 Multivariate analysis of factors influencing glycated hemoglobin in patients type 2 diabetes mellitus

Variable	Value	Model 1			Model 2
		OR	95%CI	P value	OR	95%CI	P value
Total energy intake	Continuous variable, per 100 kcal/day	1.536	1.176-2.005	0.002	1.491	1.134-1.960	0.004
Carbohydrate energy percentage	Continuous variable, %	1.110	0.992-1.241	0.069	1.112	0.987-1.253	0.081
Age	Continuous variable	1.012	0.963-1.065	0.629	1.008	0.957-1.061	0.771
Gender	0 = female, 1 = male	0.410	0.126-1.336	0.139	0.433	0.132-1.419	0.167
Duration of diabetes mellitus	Continuous variable	1.030	0.925-1.146	0.592	1.034	0.929-1.152	0.536
BMI	Continuous variable	1.170	1.020-1.343	0.025	1.193	1.031-1.380	0.018
Educational level	0 = elementary school and below, 1 = junior and senior high school, 2 = high school or above
Elementary school and below				0.009			0.029
Junior and senior high school		0.133	0.025-0.700	0.017	0.154	0.029-0.824	0.029
High school or above		0.092	0.020-0.428	0.002	0.127	0.027-0.605	0.010
Clinical treatment regiment	0 = dietary control alone, 1 = OAD monotherapy, 2 = combination OAD therapy
Dietary control alone				0.029			0.047
OAD monotherapy		0.271	0.078-0.943	0.040	0.311	0.089-1.094	0.069
Combination OAD therapy		0.129	0.023-0.732	0.021	0.144	0.026-0.807	0.028
Total cholesterol	Continuous variable				1.540	0.906-2.618	0.110

Model 1: Hosmer-Lemeshow P = 0.223, Nagelkerke R² = 0.619. Model 2: Hosmer-Lemeshow P = 0.189, Nagelkerke R² = 0.635. BMI: Body mass index; OAD: Oral antidiabetic drug; OR: Odds ratio; CI: Confidence interval.