Cardiac changes in infants of diabetic mothers

Table 1 The cardiac effect of Gestational Diabetes on the foetus, neonates as late effects

Foetal effects[22]
Foetal–placental circulation in both structure and function and altered placental villi vascularization
Congenital cardiac malformations
Foetal cardiomyopathy
Foetal venous thrombosis
Pathological foetal heart rates
Diabetic fetopathy-associated heart failure
Single umbilical artery
Neonatal effects[22]
Cardiovascular maladaptation to extra-uterine life
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (adaptive hypertrophy)
Pericardial effusion (15%)
Intermittent or persistent bradycardia
Cardiomegaly
Simple congenital heart diseases:
Patent foramen ovale
Patent ductus arteriosus
Ventricular septal defect
Atrial septal defect
Aortic coarctation (Isolated)
Complex congenital heart diseases:
Tetralogy of Fallot
Aortic coarctation (when associated with other CHDs)
Persistent truncus arteriosus
Hypoplastic left ventricle.
Visceral heterotaxia
Single ventricle
Long term effects[23]
Increased rates of early-onset CVD from childhood to early adulthood (29% more than from non-diabetic mothers):
Overall CVD
Ischaemic heart disease
Cerebrovascular disease
Stroke
Heart failure
Atrial fibrillation
Hypertensive disease
Deep vein thrombosis
Pulmonary embolism

CHDs: Congenital heart diseases; CVD: Cardiovascular diseases.