Serum biomarkers in diabetic kidney disease: A comprehensive narrative review

Figure 1 The schematic diagram categorizes serum biomarkers of diabetic kidney disease according to their associated pathogenic mechanisms, including metabolic dysregulation, glomerular and tubular injury, inflammatory processes, oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, fibrosis and extracellular matrix remodeling, and hemodynamic stress with endothelial dysfunction. The central kidney illustration shows the anatomical context of these pathological processes. DKD: Diabetic kidney disease; HbA1c: Glycosylated hemoglobin; AGEs: Advanced glycation end products; ZAG: Zinc-alpha-2-glycoprotein; APOA4: Apolipoprotein A-IV; APOC3: Apolipoprotein C-III; IGFBP3: Insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3; RBP4: Retinol-binding protein 4; TGF-β1: Transforming growth factor beta 1; HPSE: Heparanase; β2-MG: Beta 2-microglobulin; BTP: Beta-trace protein; KIM-1: Kidney injury molecule-1; NGAL: Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin; 8-OHdG: 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine; GDF-15: Growth differentiation factor-15; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha; IL: Interleukin; suPAR: Soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor; YKL-40: Chitinase-3-like protein 1; MCP-1: Monocyte chemoattractant protein 1; C1QB: C1q subcomponent subunit B; CFHR2: Complement factor H-related protein 2; NETs: Neutrophil extracellular traps; CD: Cluster of differentiation; TRAIL: Tumor necrosis factor related apoptosis inducing ligand; OPN: Osteopontin; ADM: Adrenomedullin; NT-proBNP: N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide; FGF: Fibroblast growth factor.